Devils here, there and everywhere

Devils here, there and everywhere
Annedorte Vad
The majority of the Danish parish churches were built in the Romanesque period, which in Denmark is considered the time from approximately 1 050 t o 1 2 5 0 . The churches were decorated with wall-paintings, tapest , stained glass windows, etc. In this a icle I want to deal with the wall­ painted decoration, which was continued and expanded during whole the medieval period. I will concentrate on tl1e devil – on how he. was depicted and in which motifs we can find him.
In the Middle Ages the church made eat e ort in stressing that God created the devils. Since God does not create an 1ing bad, it was stated tl1at they originally had been good. They were created as angels but became evil on their own. Satan was the Ieader of tl1ese fallen angels. He was created as the most beauti l of them an, but in his fall he tu ed into something ugly and nasty. Satan is God’s opponent. Satan and his followers are diametrically opposed to God and his kingdom. They were considered a threat to man, but salvation could be found in Christian belief. The medieval church emphasized that God gave Satan his power, and that Satan’s activities were dependent on God’s will; therefore, Satan was not as such a threat to God.1
The devils are here, there and everywhere. They c a n assume a n shapes, and in theory there could be devils in the decorations that we do not nd because we cannot recognize them. Two things are important to reco ize and nd the devils in the wall-paintings:
1 . Knowing the stories of the Bible conceming the devil;
2. Knowing the icono aphical expressions used to depict tl1e devil.
When the devils appear in stories of the Bible, they need not necessarily Iook like devils as we know them. They assume the shapes described in the Bible, such as snakes and dragons; knowing tl1e biblical stories is, therefore, essential to be able to find and recognize them.
In iconographical expressions, Satan and the devils are depicted ugly and nasty for the spectator to reco ize them. In their Iook as weil as their
I Georg Heggum, „Dj vel“, Kullurhistorisk /eksikon jor nordisk middelalder m, 1958, p. 125-126.
37
behaviour they are depicted as opposites to God and the saints. This teils us something about the conceptions of beauti l and ugly as weil as of good and bad behaviour?
Statistics
Accu ulating infonnation in databases provides us with an implement that can change the way we Iook at things, b ause it o ers new ways by which we can approach our source material. In our project we gather the infonnation in two databases – an iconographical database and an image database.3 lt is important to di erentiate between the two, although the infonnation they hold is very similar. In both databases we collect the basic infonnation we have on each wall-painting. The infonnation we gather is as follows:
• the name ofthe church in which the motifis placed;
• the district and diocese;
• what the motif represents;
• when the motif was painted;
• by which workshop it was painted;
• where in the church it is placed;
• if necessa , we also place a comment.
The di erence between the databases lies in the amount of material as weil as the fonn of it. The iconographical database contains infonnation of almost all known wall-paintings, of the existing as weil as those that are now lost. lt contains infonnation on nearly 1 1 500 di erent motifs. With such a large quantity reliable statistic analyses can be done, and it is, therefore, obvious that this database offers an opportunity for quantitative studies. The image database on the other hand is an electronic collection of images, which contains more than 5000 digitalized slides of wall-paintings and the descriptions of these. This database naturally provides material for comparative studies ofthe di erent motifs.4
Our iconographical database is constructed according to the traditional art historical way of describing image. This tradition, which has been in uenced by the Warburg-school and especially Erwin Panofsky, relies and refers to textual points of reference, and records the icono aphical motif only.5 Since the devils are not p of the classi cation system traditionally used, fmding records of them is not
2 Ulla Haast p (ed.), „Danske kalk alerier 1 175-1275“, Danske Kalkmalerier Vol. 2, 1987, p. 29.
3 CF the article by Jesper 1. Borrild in this volume.
4 The databases are generally open to the public on the Internet. The address is http: www.kalkmalerier.dk/englis default.htm
l Erwin Panofsky, Meaning in the visual arts, 1993, p. 53-54.
38
s aightforward. We are working on extending the databases to contain wider icono aphical descriptions, but at present searching on words such as Satan, Lucifer, devil, devils etc. produces Iess than 200 records, and it is a well-known fact that many more are to be found on the church walls. What you have to do is to search for the iconographical motifs in which you expect to nd depictions of the devil-motifs, such as The Fall and The Last Jud ent, for ex ple. By doing that I have found just over 1000 motifs containing depictions ofthe devil, and it is om that material I will place my statistic analyses.
The image database contains digitalized slides of 5230 wall­ paintings.6 To each picture, there are records of its pre-icono aphical content. The iconographical infonnation you get is, therefore, dependent on what can be seen on the actual photograph. At present, it is possible to see devils on the photographs, which have not yet been registered in the database. To add infonnation of this kind, we will have to Iook at each picture separately and write down everything that can be seen on it. It is a ve extensive and time-consuming amotmt of work that so far has been done on clothing only. But when the database has been elaborated with these „unconventional“ classi cations, it will be a much more use l and powerful implement by which one can nd the exact infonnation one seeks.
We use the databases extensively when we approach our source material in this new fashion. We make statistic analyses on the occurrences of di erent motifs, compare the dioceses and Iook at the di erences between the east and west of Denmark. The ture holds opportunities for wider statistic analyses based on the !arge digital databases, as they develop and ow into more accurate tools. It is obvious that ture historical research will concentrate on and make use of the possibilities that the !arge databases provide. In our own project we see more and more students concentrating their dissertations around these new possibilities within the profession ofhistory.
The following analyses represent a rst attempt in approaching the source material ofdevils statistically. The material I work with is the data of the iconographical database.7 For my analyses I have used the data which is found in the period between 1 100 and 1550. That interval covers the rst entry of the devil and the end of the Middle Ages. The ount of data on which I place my statistic analyses is as follows: all motifs 1 0388; motifs containing depictions ofthe devil: I 024 .
When looking at the dispersion ofthe number ofmotifs found in each diocese, you clearly see that they are not spread equally. Roskilde and Lund are represented with more than 3000 motifs each. Odense and Arhus
6 at November 1997. 7 at November 1997.
39
are represented with approximately half that amount. Barglum, Ribe and Viborg are represented with about 400 motifs each, whereas only 214 motifs represent Slesvig.
Looking at the nurober of motifs containing depictions of the devil in each diocese, you would expect to nd a similar distribution, and apparently you do: Roskilde and Lund are still represented by a much !arger amount than the other dioceses, and Slesvig still has relatively few. But looking at the dispersion of motifs containing depictions of the devil expressed as a percentage of all the motifs reveals that the distribution between the dioceses is not quite the same, and it is clear that three oups emerge (diagram I).
I . I n Berglum, Lund, Odense and Roskilde 9.02-1 0.23% of the motifs contain depictions of the devil.
2. In Ribe, Slesvig and Viborg that percentage is between 6.33 and 7.48.
3. Arhus diocese is distinguished by having many as 12.24%. Looking at Denmark in general, differences between the easte and westem parts of the country appear, altl1eugl1 they are only small when considering the eccu ence of the devil in the wall-paintings. Of the 6248 motifs that represent the dioceses of Eastem Denmark (Lund and Reskilde), 9.92% contain depictions of the devil. Weste Denmark (B rglum, Odense, Ribe, Slesvig, Viborg and Arhus) is represented by 4 1 35 motifs, 9.72% of them centain depictions ofthe devil.
The Depiction of the Devil
in the Romanesque and in the Late Medieval Period
There are several di erences between the style ef the Romanesque wall­ paintings and the wall-painted ademment ofthe ate Middle Ages. Danish Remanesque art was an integrated pa ef the centemperary Eurepean art, whereas Gothic art never became very inte ated; instead it was a down­ to-earth and Danish art en domestic terms.8 The Romanesque wall­ paintings are distinguished by the streng colours used, and by the fact that the whole of the surface was painted. This is in centrast to the late medieval ademment where the background, although lled with oma­ mental deceratiens, usually was kept white. In the Remanesque style the outline is used to underline and tighten up the motif, whereas in the late medieval style the outline constitutes the actual motif.9
8 el Bolvig, Bondelis billeder. Om kirker og kunst i da11sk senmi elalder, 1 994, p. 92.
9 Ulla Haastrup (ed.), „Danske kalkmalerier 1 175-1275“, Danske Kal alerier Vol. 2, 1987, p. 16; Ulla Haastrup (ed.), „Danske kalkmalerier 1275-1375“, Danske Kalkmalerier Vol. 3, 1 989, p. 27-28.
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Diagram 1: The dispersion ofmotifs containing depictions ofthe devi/ in each diocese, and the total number ofmotifs in each diocese.
�
3500
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
Be tu Lund
Odense
Ribe Roskilde
Slesvig
Viborg
Arhus
DOevils •An molifs

The di erences in style are, according to Axel Bolvig, caused by the change in who conunissioned the decorations of the churches. In the Romanesque period, the churches were built, decorated, used and owned by a minor part of the population only – namely the eat landowners.10 In the late medieval period, the decline in the population gave grounds for a new social order where the copyholders fonned the congregation and took care of the decoration and up-keep of the local church; so, the imagery belonged to them. 1 1
The strict, aristocratic and sublime nature i s characteristic o f the Romanesque wall-paintings; people were depicted stoic with a composure and peace not seen later. Not much room was le to the display of the devil, unlike the late medieval ador ent, in which the artists showed a !arger amount of artistic freedom, and the depiction of the devil sometimes developed into something very imaginative. In the late Middle Ages you can even find the devil depicted in obscene positions. As a good guidance, you can say that the devil becomes much more imaginative in time and that the Romanesque devil is pretty t e compared to his dramatic late medieval colleagues. The Romanesque wall-paintings represent an aristocratic art that re ects the ownership of the magnate s . 1 2 The wall­ paintings of the centuries before the Reformation represent folk art. Created by artisans, corrunissioned by the mixed congregation of the churches, and made for all churchgoers, they depicts the mentality of the simple population . 1 3
But i t i s not only the mot that change from the Romanesque to the late medieval period. There is also a considerable increase in the amount ofmotifs in which the devils occur. However, the generat amount ofmotifs also increases in that time, and it may, therefore, be more valuable to Iook at the distribution of motifs containing depictions of the devil expressed as a percentage of all the motifs. (dia am 2).
10 el Bolvig, Bondens billeder. Om kirker og kunst i dansk senmidde/a/der, 1994, p. 60.
1 1 el Bolvig, Bondens bi/leder. Om kirker og kunst i dansk senmidde/alder, 1 994, p. 68-72.
12 el Bolvig, Kirkekunstens storhedstid. Om kirker og kunsr i Danmark i romansk Iid, 1992, p. 76-79.
13 el Bolvig, Bondens bi/leder. Om kirker og kunst i dansk senmidde/alder, 1 994, p. 88.
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3000
2000
1500 · 1000 �-
Diagram 2: The dispersion ofmotifs containing depictions ofthe devil in 50 years‘ periods, and the total number ofmot .

�w
2500
4000

3500
500
01
–
1 1 00-1150 1 1 50-1200 1200-1250 1250-1300 1300-1350 1350-1400 1400-1450 1450-1500 1500-1550
I

By looking at the dispersion expressed in percentage you see a clear di erence between the Romanesque and the late medieval period. Romanesque , the devil occurs in approximately 5% of all the motifs.14 From around 1 3 0 0 , that percentage has redouble d ! The percentages accentuate the incredible rise in the amount ofmotifs containing depictions ofthe devil that takes place from around the year 1300.
Description of the Devils
In the world of the wall-paintings, it is easy to di erentiate good and holy people from evil – you see the di erence in the mere depiction, because people are depicted according to their qualities. Holy people as weil as ordinary people are usually depicted en face or in three-quarter pro le, whereas evil people and the devil mostly will be seen in clear pro le – a position in which you will never nd holy men and women. Besides that, ordina people and holy men and women are more quiet and elegant in their appearance than emde people and the devils who o en are seen in action. 1 5
The following classi cation ofthe devils is based on the way they Iook. I have classi ed them into ve di erent groups. I must however draw attention to the fact that t11e di erent kinds of devils are not always clearly di erentiated; it is mixtures ofthe ve categories one usually nds.
I . The rst oup contains the ones that Iook like dragons or snakes. This
kind is very much connected to the descriptions of the devil in the Bible. They are most commonly found in pictures of Saint Michael’s Combatwith Satan16 and in The Fall ofMan n
2. In the second oup we nd the crippled devils. According to the common belief in the Middle Ages, ugly and crippled people were evil or at least bad. Obviously tl1at belief counts for the devils as weil. They may have lost their limbs in the combat with God, but the feelings they evoke in the spectators must have been the same. The crippled devils are o en found near the mouth of Hell, probably to underline that this place really is disa eeable.18
14 The 50-years period from 1 150 to 1200 is conspicuous. But, since it is the period with the least amount of records, it may be due to the element of uncertainty that statistic ana1yses inevitab1y contains, and not an honest deviation.
1l Ulla Haastrup (ed.), „Danske ka1kma1erier 1 175-1275“, Danske Ka alerier Vol. 2, 1 987, p. 29-30
16 For example Vigersted (221177) and Ballerup (Ad 6_26). (The information in the brackets is the search-code for the speci c motif which can be used on http://www.kalkmalerier.dk!english/default.htm. When no search-code is given the motifis not yet to be found in the database).
17 For example Rasted (29_219) and Keldby (17_28).
18 For example Udbyneder (1 1 /22) Ottestrup (SH/221 ) and Hyllested (201l59).
44
3.
4.
Those created from di erent animal bodyparts constitute the third When mixing di erent body parts of animals with that of the human, you get a otesque figure (Fig. 1). At the same time you can underline certain features known to be related to the pa icular animal.19 The fourth oupcontains devils with wings. When equipping the devil with wings, you draw a line back to the thought of the devils being angels. It varies whether they have been given frayed angel-wings or wings more similar to that of the bat. With the latter, you draw the attention to the well-known fact that the bat is a creature of the night, which many consider frightening.20 There are a Iot of examples of the devil de ing the laws of avity; so obviously they do not need the wings to fly. Devils that were given wings are often, but not always, the ones taking the souls to Hell. They are also seen near the chuming woman.21
The rest oup – those with masks everywhere on their body, for instance. The ones in S by (Fig. 2) and Vrä are such examples – they are both fetehing the soul of a dying man 22 The ones in Gudum and Age p who t to tempt Chrisr3 also belang to this group.
5.
Fig. 1 : The sma/1 devils from Ballerop are created of d e rent animal body parts (group 3). They are acting in a Soul Weighing scene, but all their efforts in pressing down the scale are in vain. .
19 For example Over Dräby (22/1 5 1 } and Gudum (29_ 1 / 1 0}.
Frayed angel wings: Udbyneder ( 1 1/22}, Bat wings: Senderholm ( 1 5/103}, errild (18/61}.
21 Near Hell: Gudum (29_1/10) and Herve (16/83), Near the churning woman: Tuse 30_3175).
22 S by (15/67), Vrä (1 1/14).
Gudum (15/45), Agerup (29_1/1 1).
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Fig. 2. The devil ofS by (group 5) isfetehing the soul ofa dying man. He is very scary, and the thought ofending with him must be terrifying.
Why is the Devil Depicted in the Church, and in Which Context do We Find Hi ?
Depicting the devil in the wall-paintings was to illustrate parts of eve day life as weil as religious beliefs. We most commonly nd the devil in scenes taken from the Bible, where he illustrates and explains the motifs. When we nd him in other scenes he is used to underline a certain belief or give the motif a certain meaning.
The Fall of M and scenes related to The Day of Judgment are the biblical motifs in which the devil most commonly occurs. Other motifs related to the stories of the Bible in which one nds depictions of the devil
are The Temptation of Christ and The Fall of Satan, but they are not as conunonly used as the others.
Besides, in themes taken from the Bible, the devil o en appears in other scenes, especially in the late medieval period when we nd him depicted as the one who Ieads people astray, and as a tempter. He is the one luring man to breaking the Ten Commandments or to committing one of the Seven Deadly Sins. He is also the one who punishes people for having committed these sins. He grasps the souls of sinners who have just died. He is found in scenes taken from everyday life, where he can be either a helper or a nuisance to people. And you see the devil Tutivillius making notice of those who gossip in church and of those who are late for
46
se ice – infonnation he can probably use for his own favour on the Day of Jud ent.24
I have classi ed the di erent motifs in which the devil appears into superior oups according to their contents. Three major oups have to be mentioned:
l . Motifs associated to God or Heaven: The Day of Jud ent, Christ’s Descent into the Land ofthe Dead, Saint Michael Killing the Dragon, The FaJI of Satan and Saint Michael Weighing the Souls. – In these scenes the devil, as a rule, is the weaker part.
2. The devil as a tempter: The Fall of Man, The Seven Deadly Sins, The Temptation of Christ and King Herod Commanding the Slaughter of the Children. – The devil usually is the stronger part in those scenes (with the exception of The Temptation of Christ where he does not succeed). The devil is weak in these scenes because he is opposed to God who is always his superior.
3. Interrelationship between man and the devils: Motifs in this oup depict eve day life chores such as chuming butter and brewing beer, as weil as devils in general. I nd it di icult to decide who are the stronger and the weaker parts in these motifs since they are depictions of the relationship between hwnans and the devil in everyday life, rather than actual battles. The chuming women do not always Iook like they enjoy the devil’s interference,25 other times they do not seem to mind too much.26 In other scenes the devils even Iook frightened of ill­ tempered women7who beat them up, and the women are clearly the devils‘ superiors.2 [ assume, however, that the humans in generat are the weaker part. Even though associating with the devil could give some advantages, consorting with the devil must have been an action not looked weil upon in society, and by doing that you would be le out of the social envirorunent of the village.
As a mle ofthumb, the devil is the loser when he competes with God and Jesus, but when he ghts with man he has more success in Jus enterprise.
24 For example Fane ord (SH/475) and Kv rkeby (SH/169). It is notewo hy that the devil is not ignorant, he is able to read and write; something the majority of the opulation was unable to.
5 Tuse (30_3175).
26 Tyvelse (29/80).
27 For example Astrup (SH/167) and Estruplund ( 1 2/ 1 00).
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First Group of Motifs: Scenes Associated with God or Heaven
T e Day ofJudgment. the Middle Ages, there was a strong belief a kind of double jud ent. Straight a er one’s death an angel or a devil would fetch the soul and take it to Heaven, Purgato or Hell, according to the way of living one’s life. On the world’s last day everybody was to be judged again, this time by Christ who will decide who should go to Heaven forever, and who should be banished to Hell for all etemity_28
The Day of Judgment was part of eve extensive decoration, as far as we know today?9 The motif appears in whole the medieval period, although it is most co on in the later pa of the Middle Ages. It is ahnost always placed in the east ofthe church in either the chancel, on the triumphal wall or in the vaults of the rst bay. In that way, the con egation was reminded of the power of God when looking towards the most sacred place of the church – the chancel. Of the 485 representations, 361 are placed at these locations. Of the remaining 26%, 23 more are placed in the eastem vaults but not in the rst bay. 22 are placed in the nortl1em vaults, 16 in the soutl1em vaults and 1 7 in the westem vaults, 4 more are placed in tl1e vaults but the adjustment is unaccounted for. 38 are placed on the walls, four are placed at other places speci c to individual churches.
The motifs representing The Day of Judgment have a xed composition, where Christ sits in the middle. To his right, you see Heaven and the redeemed people, and to his le you will nd Hell and the condernned. The depiction of Hell varies from church to church and over time. Sometimes it is merely a few ames, other times it is a vivid description of the horrors of tl1at place.30 The idea of Hell as a big Leviathan is taken from the Bible.31 Sometimes it is very erce/2 otl1er Iimes it Iooks more like an old tired dog.33 A Iot of devils usually appear near Hell. They work very hard on dragging the souls of sirmers into the big mouth of Hell. They use wheelbarrows, ropes and otl1er implements34 to keep the souls of tl1e sinners, sometimes they carry them on their back. 35 The devils near Hell ve o en have wings, which is very practical for the
28 Heinrich Roos, „Dommedag“, Kulturhistorisk leksikonfor nordisk middela/der III, 1958, p. 209.
Ulla Haastrup (ed.), „Danske kalkmalerier 1375-1475“, Danske Kalkmalerier Vol. 4, 1985, p. 18.
3 ° For example Nerre Herlev (SH/232) and Herve ( 1 6/83).
31 TheBookofJob41.
32 For example Keldby ( I7/52) and Merkev (9/50). 33 Hejby (SH/224).
34 For example Tuse (30_3/7 1 ) .
3l For example Hejby (32_112).
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sort of work they are doing, as it signifies that they are quicker than humans.
It is notable that the Purgatory is very rarely depicted in the Danish medieval wall-paintings. Scenes that could be associated with Purgato in general are mixed with the depictions of Hell.
An early (1325) and, therefore, unique depiction of Purgato is found in Keldby church. Whole the triwnphal wall is dedicated to the depiction of The Day of Judgment. Christ is represented by The Seat of Grace and placed most centrally above the chancel arch. To the north, the Purgatory is depicted together with Paradise, and to the south we find Hell. Purgatory is thereby placed opposite He11.36 In Arhus Cathedral, Purgato is depicted as an opposite to Heaven, but the concept of Purgato is confused with that ofHell.37
When Saint Michael Weiglting t e Souls, it is part of Judgment Day, too. There are records of 48 soul-weighing-scenes.38 The rst ent of this motif dates back to 1250 and is found in Stadager church, Odense diocese. There are only a few records of this motif in the period between 1300 and
1400. The motif is most commonly used from 1400 to 1 500, when 55% of the records are found.
In 29 of the 48 churches, the motif is placed in direct connection with the depiction of Judgment Day. The 19 remaining are placed away from the actual scene, but they are still to be considered as part of it.39 In Ballemp40 church, for example, the soul-weighing-motif is placed on the weste ost vault, and is, thereby, the last wall-painting you see before leaving the church. The moral is probably to remind people that everything counts on the last day, and that they should live their Jives accordingly.
The devil often tries to tamper with the scales in Jus own favour.
Sometimes, more than one devil is working on getting the soul convicted. The devils use their weight, stones or even millstones to lie heavy on the scale.41 To rescue the humble and o en praying soul, Saint Michael or
36 Jenny Flensborg, „Dommedag, Nädestol og Sk rsild“, Danske kalkma/erier vol. 3, (ed Ulla Haastrup), 1989, p. 118-1 19.
37 Grethe Foss, Arhus Domkirke, 1982, p. 62.
38 Petersen, Tom W., Sja evejningen i dansk kalkmaleri (Unpublished dissertation),
1974, p. 51-53.
39 Petersen, Tom W., Sjadevejningen i dansk kalkmaleri (Unpublished dissertation),
1974, p. 65.
4 0 (Ad 7_3 1 ) .
41 Their own weight: Birkered (SH/235) and Ballerup (Ad 6_31), Stones: Gerlev (SH/207), Millstones: Jetsmark (SH/399).
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Saint Mary sometimes „cheat“ on his behalf, by pressing down the scale with a hand or nger.42
All in ali, the devil has only Iittle Juck in his enterprise. Only three times he succeeds in having the soul convicted 43
Cltrist’s Descent into t e Land oft e Dead. There are 28 records of this motif. It appears for the rst time in Rästed church 1 100-1 125, but is not represented again before around the year 1300, when it appears in Butte p church. The motif is most co only used in the period between 1400 and 1 500, when almost 60% ofthe entries are found.
The depictions ofChrist’s Descent into the Land ofthe Dead are ve uniform, too. Christ is usually seen to the Ie of the mouth of Hell. He is bigger than the people he is rescuing. He holds out his right hand to the souls. The souls stand in the mouth ofHell. Devils do not always appear in this motif, but when they do, they are harmless – Christ has chained them, and they are the losers.44
Hell is mostly depicted as a Leviathan, once it is merely a grotto, at some places you see architectural desi s in front – as described in the Bible.45
Saint Mic ae/ in Combat wit t e Dragon Of all the motifs containing depictions of the devil, this motif is the only one which is not most co only used in the late medieval period. Instead, it is fairly much used in the Romanesque period, and it is among tl1e very earliest motifs containing depictions of tl1e devil I have found. The first entries of this motif date back to about I I 00-1 I25 and are found in Hvorslev and Rästed church, botl1 in Arhus diocese.46 The use of this motif peaks in the period between 1250 and 1350, when 55% ofthe records are found.
The motif reproduces the biblical story of Satan’s Fall. Saint Michael usualiy uses a big lance to kill Satan who appears in tl1e shape of a dragon.47 The allegory of Satan as a dragon is taken from tl1e Bible: „And there was war in heaven. Michael and his angels fought against the dragon, and the dragon and his angels fought back. But he was not strong enough, and they lost their place in heaven. The eat dragon was hurled down –
42 Saint Mary „cheating“: Fane ord (30_2/84), Saint Michael „cheating“: Gerlev (SH/207).
43 Gundslev, Hejby (S 204) and Kirke Hyllinge.
Undlese (S 98)(SH/99) and Gerlev (SH/230)(SH/23 1 ).
41 Leviathan: Vallensb k (SH/544}, Grotto: Vrigstad, Architecture: Undlese (SH/98). 46 Hvorslev (29_2/3 1 ), Rasted (29_2/8).
47 For example Bregninge (SH/773) and Kippinge ( 1 7/8).
50
that ancient serpent called the devil, or Satan, who Ieads the whole world astray. He was hurled to the earth, and his angels with him.‘ 8
Second Group of Motifs: The Devil as a Tempter
Tlre Fa ofMan. The oldest motifs I have found containing depictions of the devil date back to 1 100-1 125. One ofthem represents The Fall ofMan. It is found in Rästed49 church, Arhus diocese. That particu1ar motif is not very common in the Romanesque period, though. There are 109 en ies of the motif in the iconographical database. Only six of these are from the period before 1300. The motif is most commonly used in the period between 1450-1550, for which 75 entries are recorded – that is more than 68%.
Looking at the motif makes you realize that it changes very little over time. The Tree of Life is centre of the motif, and Adam and Eve stand on each their side of it. Wrapped around the tree is the devil, who is usually represented in the shape of different mixtures between human and snake.50 There are only few exceptions to that: In Skellebjerg church the devil is clearly depicted as a dragon, and in Rästed church he is just a simple snake.51 The devil can be depicted as both male and female – sometimes as a re ected image of Eve, other times with no clear sex.52 In some representations he wears a crown, in others he does not.53 In most cases, the devil addresses Eve, but there are exceptions to that.54 Adam and Eve are placed on both sides of the tree – apparently there is not the same allegory of evil being depicted to the right in the picture, as we nd it in other motifs, like The Day ofJudgment for example. The di erences in the composition of this motif occur in all the periods – it seems to be a matter of changes from church to church, rather than a change over time.
King Herod and t e Devil. Another way of depicting the power of the tempting devil is shown in M0rk0v and Reerslev church When King Herod orders the slaughtering of the children, a devil is seen behind his throne, whispering in his ear. The devil is quite big and hairy. He has pointy ears, Iong homs and a tail. The decision by Herod to kill all the
41 Revelation 12,7.
49 (29_2/9).
1° For example Kirkerup (29_1/34) and Kettinge (14/120).
11 Skellebjerg (16/61), sted (29_2/9).
12 Male: ( 1 2/ 1 58), female: Narre Alslev (28_1/60), re ected image of Eve: Tingsted (14/48), no clear sex: (Hyllested 20/147) .
13 Crown: Kongens Lyngby (SH/15), no crown: Astrup (16/154).
14 Gjerrild(18/58).
11 Merkev (9/33) and Reerslev ( 1 4/43).
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babies is clearly influenced by the act of the devil in these motifs, but the motifalso exists when no sign ofthe devil is shown.
In Nykirke56 you see the devil behind Herod, when Jesus is taken before him. The devil there is much smaller and has got wings. This motif generally has no indication to the interference of the devil, and the motif in Nykirke is, therefore, quite ex aord.inary in that perspective.
The Seven Deadly Sins. This motif is not used the Romanesque period. It does not occur before the year 1300. The first ent I have found is om Kirkerup (1300-1350). Before 1450, I came across only 9 records ofit. It is most co only used in the period 1450-1550, with nearly 83%.
The devil lures people into mischief, whenever he can. When people are breaking the Ten Conunandments or committing one of The Seven Deadly Sins, one o en sees the devil in the corridor, pleased with Iris own achievement.57 But he is also the one who punishes people for having com itted these sins. In Birkemd,58 you reco ize nine souls being punished that way. Among them is the adulteress who has two basilisks sucking her breast as a punislunent for her crime, and the eedy man who is own away by a devil, still holding the purse in his hand. The fat man to the le is being force-fed by a devil as a punishment for his crime of gluttony, yet others are characterized by different weapons representing Jra and Acedia. 59
The Temptation ofChrist. This motif appears three times between 1 125 and 1 1 70 (in Asmundtorp, Todbjerg and Ja lunde church, respectively Lund, Arhus and Roskilde diocese). 1200 in Ferring church, the motif is reproduced twice – respectively the second and the third temptation. But the motif is most commonly used between 1450 and 1550, when the remaining I 0 records are found; they account for 66%.
The motifs representing the Temptation of Christ show that the devil does not always succeed in his misch.ie Jesus sets a good example. The devil tries to tempt Jesus three times. First, he dares him to tu stones into bread, and then he o ers him all the power in the world. Last, he wants him to jump from the highest temple in Jerusalem, to prove that angels will save 1Um.60 The motifs in Gudwn, Agerup and Fane ord61 represent the rst and the third of these temptations. The devil in all three represent-
l6 (9/2).
l‘ For example Kv rkeby (SH/168) and Tirsted.
lS (29_31/66).
l9 Ulla Haastrup (ed.), „Dommen over gode og onde“, Danske kal alerier vol. 3, �d. Ulla Haastrup), 1989, p. 170-73.
61 Luke4,1-13.
Gudum ( 1 5/45), Agerup (SH/757) and Fane ord ( 1 2/38).
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ations belongs to the h group. They have faces on several places oftheir bodiesandareahnostasbigasJesushi selflnElsinoreC e lite Monaste 62 a person tempts Jesus who does not Iook like a devil. The devil ies to dissemble. To recognize him as a devil one has to know the context ofthe Bible conceming the Temptation of Christ.
Third Group of Motifs: Interrelationship Between Man and the Devils
Fetehing Souls ofSinners. Several times we nd devils fetehing the souls of sinners.63 Sometimes we can tell whom the souls belong to, or what crime had been committed – Judas, the evil thief at Golgotha, or people who committed one of the seven Deadly Sins are examples for that situation.64 We can be sure that it was to underline the seriousness of these crimes that the souls, at the moment of death, were fetched by devils and taken straight to Hell.
lnterfering in Houselwld Actions. Even in the simple chores of everyday life, the devils join in.65 One often sees them near the chuming woman, once the devil meddles when she pours beer, and in another church even a monk. is disturbed when pouring beer.66 Brewing beer as weil as the chuming of butter are processes that not always tu out success lly, since both are dependent on temperature and on the state of cleanliness in the surroundings. Medieval people o en seem not to have been aware of that, and to them it was obviously the devils‘ work, when their milk did not t to butter, or the beer was sour, especially if the products of their neighbour were ne. When a hare was drinking the milk of a cow, it was actually the devil who had transfonned a woman into a hare, to help her steal milk om her neighbours – a perfectly logical explanation to why a cow was not giving any milk! lgnorance as weil as a certain amount of jealousy obviously were the leading factors to many of the ideas about devils.67
The devils are here, there and everywhere. As I tried to show, it is possible
to classi the motifs in which they can be found. Sometimes, though, you
find devils who seem to have been placed on the vaults out of context. But
62 (19/148).
63 ForexampleBallerup(Ad6_17).
Judas: Fane ord (12/19), Golgotha: Tägerup (14/104), Seven Deadly Sins: Birkered F9_31/66).
sNielsM. Saxtorph,Mellemhimmeloghelvede. 1979,p. 28-29.
Chuming: Tirsted (Sh/165}, Gjerrild (SH/310}, Vejlby (SH/333), Tuse (30_3/75). Beer brewing: Tuse (30_3/74).
67 Ebbe Nyborg, Fanden v ggen. l978, pp. 38-39; p. 80-81 .
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even when the devils are acting on their own, they usually perfonn jobs that can be related to the motifs just described. When we nd chained devils, it must be the allegory of Christ’s power over Satan. When they occur luring around the vaults, it is probably to remind the con egation that devils are eve where, and that one should beware of the dangers of slipping into sin, however tempting it may seem.
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MEDIUM AEVUM QUOTIDIANUM
39
KREMS 1998
HE USGEGEBEN VON GERHARD JARITZ
GEDRUCKT MIT UNTERSTÜTZUNG DER KULTURABTEILUNG DES AMTES DER NIEDERÖSTERREICHISCHEN LANDESREGIERUNG
Titelgraphik: Stephan J. Tramer
Herausgeber: Mediwn Aevwn Quotidianum. Gesellscha zur Erforschung der materiellen Kultur des Mittelalters, Kö ermarkt 13, A-3500 Krems, Österreich. Für den Inhalt verantwortlich zeichnen die Autoren, olme deren ausdrückliche Zustimmung jeglicher Nachdmck, auch in Auszügen, nicht gestattet ist. – Dmck: KOPITU Ges. m. b. H., Wiedner Hauptstraße 8-10, A-l050 Wien.
Inhaltsverzeichnis
Vorwort…………………………………………………………………………………….. 5
elBolvig,DanishWall-paintings-anIntroduction………………………… 7
elBolvig,Ars/onga-vitabrevis………………………………………………. 9
Jesper Jerre Borrild, Medieval Danish Wall-paintings-
anInte etDatabase………………………………………………………….. 21
AnnedorteVad,Devilshere,thereandeverywhere…………………………. 37
Steen Schj0dt Christensen, Mysterious Images –
Grimacing, Grotesques, Obscene, Popular:
Anti-orConunentaryImages?…………………………………………….. 55 Martin Bo N0rregärd, The Concept ofLabour
intheDanishMedievalWall-paintings…………………………………. 76 el Bolvig, Images ofLate Medieval ‚DailyLife‘:
AHistoryofMentalities…………………………………………………….. 94
Annamäria Kovacs, Costumes as Symbols.
The Pictorial Representations of the Legend of
KingLadislas of Hungary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Anca Golg tan, Family, Patronage, and istic Production:
The Apa s and Mäläncrav (Almakerek, Malmkrog),
Sibiu District, in Transylvania . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
3
Vorwort
Medium Aevum Quotidianum legt mit He 39 einen Band vor, welcher sich schwerpunktartig mit der Analyse von Bildquellen, vor allem Wandmalerei, auseinandersetzt Die Autoren der Beiträge stammen aus zwei Institutionen, in denen Bilddokumentation und Analyse konzentriert betrieben werden: dem Department of Histo an der Universität Kopenhagen und dem Department of Medieval Studies an der Central European University, Budapest. Das erstgenannte Institut ist besonders durch seine Digitalisierung des Gesamtbestandes dänischer Wandmalerei bekannt geworden, der über das Inte et allgemein zugänglich geworden ist und als Basis für umfassende qualitative und quantitative Bilduntersuchungen herangezogen werden kann. Das Depa ment of Medieval Studies der CEU konzentriert sich in Zusammenarbeit mit dem Institut für Realienkunde des Mittelalters und der frühen Neuzeit der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenscha en auf die Sammlung, Katalogisierung, Dokumentation und Analyse zentraleuropäischen Bildmaterials. Die VerfLigbarkeit des aufgearbeiteten Bestandes via Inte et ist in Vorbereitung.
Medium Aevum Quotidianum ist nun auch mittels Inte et erreichbar (http:// .imareal.oeaw.ac.at/maq/). Im Augenblick bieten wir das Inhaltsverzeichnis aller seit unserer Gründung im Jahre 1982 erschienenen Bände. Aktuelle Informationen, Links zu anderen, uns wichtig erscheinenden Websites sowie Berichte werden in Zukun das Service ngebot erweite .
Gerhard Jaritz, Herausgeber
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