Cultures of Sleeping:
The Interior of Late Medieval Bedrooms in the Dalmatian Commune of Šibenik
Goran Budeč
Inventories of goods represent one of the most valuable source types for the examination of material culture in everyday life of late medieval cities. This is certainly true for the Dalmatian commune of Šibenik in the fifteenth century, primarily because of the great number of extant private-law documents written by communal notaries and, in particular, inventories of material goods. An analysis of these documents, recorded for individuals of all social strata living in this late medieval city, gives a very good insight into the variety of material objects owned by the inhabitants of Šibenik as parts of their households.1
The history of the East Adriatic commune of Šibenik in the fifteenth century was influenced by several significant historical events. After ceasing its hostility towards Venice in 1412 and the conflicts with Croatian noblemen in the city’s hinterland in 1434, the development of the commune in the rest of the century was marked by economic ascent and general prosperity. However, the economic prosperity of Šibenik ended abruptly at the close of the fifteenth century due to strong Ottoman pressure, particularly after the fall of the Kingdom of Bosnia in 1463. Yet regardless of the Ottoman military threat, the entire period following the establishment of political, economic, and administ- rative domination of the Serenissima over Šibenik in 1412, was strongly affected by Venetian and, generally, Italian influence. This was particularly visible in legislation and administration, but also in various aspects of daily life and material culture.2
1 Goran Budeč, “Svakodnevni život stanovnika Šibenika u drugoj polovini XV. stoljeća u zrcalu inventara i oporuka s posebnim osvrtom na razinu materijalne culture” [Everyday life of denizens of Šibenik in the second half of the fifteenth century as reflected in the inventories and last wills with special attention on the level of material culture], un- published PhD-thesis (Zagreb: Hrvatski studiji Sveučilišta u Zagrebu, 2013).
2 For more on the basic chronology and its interpretations, see Šibenik, spomen zbornik o 900. obljetnici [Šibenik, commemorative proceedings on its 900th anniversary], ed. Slavo Gru- bišić, Posebna izdanja, vol. 1 (Šibenik: Muzej grada Šibenik, 1976); Josip Kolanović, Šibe- nik u kasnome srednjem vijeku [Šibenik in the late Middle Ages] (Zagreb: Školska knjiga, 1995).
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At the level of communal life, the fifteenth century in Šibenik was marked by the construction of St. James cathedral, the reconstruction of the old forti- fication system damaged during the hostilities with Venice, the erection of new towers and walls, and the implementation of various lesser architectural inter- ventions.3 It is important to stress that all of these works were consequences of the economic growth and relative prosperity mentioned above. The vivid economic life of the inhabitants of Šibenik from all strata of society in that period is best visible in the increasing number of private documents recorded by several notaries in their offices spread all over the city. Since these documents were written not only for patricians, but also for citizens, foreigners, temporary inhabitants, villagers, and many others from different social layers and of both gender, it may be stated that, during the fifteenth century, the so-called process of “democratisation” in drafting private documents reached its medieval peak. This provides us with an almost complete insight into the development of the standard of living and, consequently, into the diversity of material culture in the communal households of Sibenik’s inhabitants. As has already been underlined, inventories of goods and to some extent last wills (and their variations, such as codicili and breviarii) offer precious insight into the material culture of Ši- benik’s inhabitants and, thanks to the aforementioned “democratisation” in the recording of private documents, a great opportunity for the better understanding of intimate household space and material items placed in private rooms.
I have examined inventories of goods that were recorded in the period bet- ween the beginning of 1451 and the end of 1467.4 These documents were mostly transcribed by Šibenik’s communal notary Karotus Vitale de Pirano (city of Piran in Istria), and sometimes by his fellow notaries Christopher, son of the late Andrew de Venetiis, vicecancelarius communis Sibenici,5 and Anthony, son of Karotus Vitale.6 Simon Vratojević, priest (presbiter) and vicecancelarius communis Sibenici also rewrote few inventories of goods with the permission of the communal count Louis Basso.7 Most of the inventories of goods were re-
3 Cf. Zoran Ladić, “Šibensko vrijeme katedrale. Doprinos stanovnika kasnosrednjovjekovne šibenske komune izgradnji katedrale sv. Jakova” [The “Age of the Cathedral” of Šibenik. The contribution of the denizens of late medieval Šibenik to the construction of the St. James Cathedral], Zbornik Odsjeka za povijesne znanosti Zavoda za povijesne i društvene znanosti Hrvatske akademije znanosti i umjetnosti 31 (2013): 37-76.
4 Državni arhiv u Zadru [State Archive Zadar], Spisi šibenskih bilježnika [Deeds of the notaries of Šibenik], Karotus Vitale (henceforth: DAZd, SŠB, KV), box 16, vol. II / vol. 15.IV .b.-b8.
5 Christopher recorded few inventories in the period between April and May of 1457, as the one belonging to the citizen John Jurković (DAZd, ŠB, KV, box 16, vol. II / vol. 15.IV. b. 3, fol. 185’).
6 See Inventarium bonorum recorded in December 1464 for magister cerdo Thomasius (DAZd, ŠB, KV, box 16, vol. II / vol. 15.IV.b. 5, fol. 296).
7 See: Inventarium bonorum recorded in June 1464 for Šibenik’s patrician ser Cvitan Gorščić (DAZd, ŠB, KV, box 16, vol. II / vol. 15.IV.b, fol. 5, fol. 288’).
39
corded in Latin, but there is a strong influence of the Venetian dialect known as veneto. An occasional usage of certain Croatian terms and notions is also visible. There are altogether 272 analysed inventories of goods that were recorded for 273 persons.8 Out of the total number of inventories of goods, 181 or 66.3 % were recorded for men and 91 or 33.3 % were written for women. The docu- ments were written down for individuals from all strata of late medieval
Šibenik’s communal society (graph 1).
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
male female
85
51
34
22
46
14
6
2552 0
cives
nobiles cives/dominae
districtuales
habitatores
forenses
unknown
Graph 1: Social and gender structure in the inventories of goods from late medieval Šibenik (1451-1467)
Material objects in the bedrooms of late medieval Šibenik
Material objects in the late medieval bedrooms of Šibenik were owned by men and women. However, the nature of the sources does not allow the complete reconstruction of a bedroom, since there are no extant inventories of spouses. Thus, it is impossible to known how many other unlisted items were in
8 One person had goods recorded in two inventories: the spectabilis dominus miles et ciuis Sibenici ser Thomasio Thomassouich who was naval commander during the Venetian crusade to Greece in 1463. After his death commisarii first recorded his property in Ši- benik, but also recorded another document after the arrival home of his ship, containing the material goods that he had carried to the crusade (DAZd, ŠB, KV, box 16, vol. II / vol. 15.IV.b, fol. 7, fol. 304-22’; fol. 8, fol. 367-67’). Also, one inventory of goods was made for three brothers who died from the plague in the village of Konjevrate in 1467 (DAZd, ŠB, KV, box 16, vol. II / vol. 15.IV.b, fol. 8, fol. 383-84’).
40
a bedroom at the moment of the recording of an inventory. The inventories show that an average bedroom was equipped with beds and appertaining utensils often stored in chests. In the following lines I shall present these material objects starting with the most numerous ones, blankets, up to the chests in which they were kept in the bedrooms of late medieval Šibenik.
Blankets (schiauine)
One of the most widespread material objects among the household items used in the late medieval bedrooms of Šibenik was a blanket, called schiauina (522 pieces or 22.5% out of all bedroom items). The schiauina was a common material object in the Dalmatian region,9 as also presented in previous studies on the medieval and early modern urban space of Zadar,10 Dubrovnik,11 Šiben- ik,12 Split,13 and Trogir.14 Jelka Perić defines it as a “quilt made of goat hair, known by the Italian name schiavine and also used as a blanket by wealthy citizens.”15 It was used during sleep but might have also been found in other household premises; one can trace schiauina in different rooms in late medieval
9 Nada Beritić, “Prilog poznavanju lopudske kuće XVI. stoljeća” [A contribution to the research of a house at Lopud in the sixteenth century], Anali historijskog instituta u Dubrovniku 3 (1954): 489-510, especially 494.
10 Inventari fonda Veličajne općine zadarske Državnog arhiva u Zadru godine 1325-1385. Inventaria et collectione Magnificae communitatis Iadre Arhivi publici Iadre annorum MCCCXXV-MCCCLXXXV, vol. 1, ed. by Robert Leljak (Zadar: Državni arhiv u Zadru, 2006), doc 15, fol. 1, p. 148.
11 Beritić, “Prilog poznavanju,” 494.
12 Jelka Perić, “Kuća u Šibeniku od najstarijih vremena do konca XVIII. stoljeća” [The house
in Šibenik from the earliest period to the end of the eighteenth century], Radovi Instituta
Jugoslavenske akademije znanosti i umjetnosti u Zadru 2 (1955): 233-268, especially 247. 13 Danica Božić-Bužančić, “Prilog proučavanju interijera kuće u Splitu iz druge polovine 16. vijeka” [Contribution to the research of the interior of a house in Split in the second half of the sixteenth century], Izdanja Historijskog arhiva u Splitu 3 (1961): 97-128, especially
100.
14 Marija Karbić and Zoran Ladić, “Oporuke stanovnika grada Trogira koje se čuvaju u
Arhivu HAZU u Zagrebu” [Last wills of denizens of Trogir, which are kept in the Archive of the Croatian Academy of Sciences and Arts in Zagreb], Radovi Zavoda za povijesne i društvene znanosti HAZU u Zadru, 43 (2001), doc. 23, p. 186; doc. 86. pp. 227-28.
15 Perić, “Kuća u Šibeniku,” 247.
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Šibenik households, including porches,16 upper rooms17 or middle rooms,18 rooms used by workers,19 and shops.20
It is worth mentioning that this material item was often donated to the poor and the sick as testified in last wills.21 For example, Šibenik’s patrician ser Martin Miršić owned two such blankets which are recorded in the section of his inventory of goods entitled In camera superiori et primo. Four years earlier, in his last will where his physical condition was defined as corpore sanus sentiens se decrepite esse etatis, ser Martin decided to donate blankets a li pueri de sancto Lazaro e a quali che stano ne li hospedali – ogni pouero una schiauina de liure tre picole.22
The documents examined in this study suggest that inhabitants of late medieval Šibenik differentiated between at least two types of such blankets: alla morlacha (27 pieces) and alla grecescha (8 pieces). One of the mentioned blankets was referred to as de Corfu, that is, from the island of Corfu,23 which raises the question of whether all the documented “Greek blankets” were actually imported from that island. Possible differences between the two types of blankets are still unknown but the data from the analysed inventories of goods confirm that both types were owned by the same people: for instance, the piscator Gaspar Rohalić de Sibenico, according to his inventory of goods written in 1454, owned quatro schiauine grecesche et dui morlache.24
16 17
18 19 20
21
Gregory Papa habitator Sibenici (DAZd, SŠB, KV, box 16, vol. II / vol. 15.IV.b.5, fol. 230).
James Ferro de Sibenico (DAZd, SŠB, KV, box 16, vol. II / vol. 15.IV.b.5, fol. 268’); patrician ser Martin Miršić (DAZd, SŠB, KV, box 16, vol. II / vol. 15.IV.b.3, fol. 162′); Archiprezbiterius James Žiljavić (DAZd, SŠB, KV, box 16, vol. II / vol. 15.IV.b.3, fol. 177).
Archidiaconus Sibenicensis Petrus Iohanni (DAZd, SŠB, KV, box 16, vol. II / vol. 15.IV.b.7, fol. 301).
Archiprezbiterius James Žiljavić (DAZd, SŠB, KV, box 16, vol. II / vol. 15.IV.b.3, fol. 177).
From a chapter in the inventory of goods made for ser Marco Iohannis which was entitled Robe in botega, we see that the mentioned patrician held 3 schiauine murlache in his shop (DAZd, SŠB, KV, box 16, vol. II / vol. 15.IV.b.7, fol. 332’).
This practice is not exclusively connected with medieval Šibenik or the Adriatic, but examples can also be found all around Europe. For more on this general practice, see. Michel Mollat, The Poor in the Middle Ages (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1986). Legacies pro anima have been studied in the case of most of the Dalmatian communes, whose results can be found Zoran Ladić, Last Will: Passport to Heaven. Urban Last Wills from Late Medieval Dalmatia with Special Attention to the Legacies pro remedio animae and ad pias causas (Zagreb: Srednja Europa, 2012).
22 DAZd, SŠB, KV, box 16, vol. II / vol. 15.IV. a, fol. 12.
23 From one inventory of goods from 1467 we see that magister lapicida John Šerba de
Sibenico owned two of such blankets, one described as schiauina de Corfu (DAZd, SŠB,
KV, box 16, vol. II / vol. 15.IV.b.8, fol. 382′).
24 DAZd, SŠB, KV, box 16, vol. II / vol. 15.IV.b.2, fol. 92.
42
Beds
As in contemporary society, the bed occupied a central position in the late medieval bedrooms of Šibenik’s houses (123 pieces or 5.3% out of all bedroom items). In the late medieval period the bed was not yet a necessary or standard household item, but a rather luxurious one, since there are evidences that people were often sleeping on the floor. Therefore, as some authors pointed out, the possession of the bed was a kind of “social marker”.25 According to data from material inventories from Šibenik one cannot make any final conclusion in that respect, simply because inventories of goods are not sources which enable this type of consideration. Namely, they represent the ownership of one particular person in the household and not of the entire household. In the inventories of goods of the wealthiest and most prominent patricians of Šibenik beds are often omitted although there were many in their households, as it is known from other types of sources.
In sources from Šibenik there appear various types of beds. The most frequently mentioned is the leto (61 pieces), representing the type of bed in the sense we are familiar with today. It was equipped with carriers on which boards were placed. Inventories of goods from late medieval Šibenik also contain 53 pieces of a simpler type of bed called letiera. These consisted of a frame con- taining a board or a network of ropes on which mattresses could have been placed.26 The examined inventories also mention nine beds of a smaller size named letizello, as well as ten cradles named chuna, owned by individuals or families from the wealthier stratas of communal society.
Although research based on source material from late medieval and early modern Šibenik and Split exhibits nutwood and sometimes firwood as common material for making beds, the observed sources do not offer any data concerning that issue. Considering the lack of data it may only be stated that beds were certainly constructed from some types of wood because iron beds became common only later in the seventeenth century.27 Other data that may be found in Šibenik’s sources regarding beds is the continuous mentioning of piuma. This term refers to the filling of mattresses, pillows or quilts with feathers, straw or wool. In the researched sample there are 48 of such filled pieces. One of these items can be found in the inventory of goods recorded in 1456 for nobilis domina Mary, uxor ser Luciani de Cegis, as vno leto de piuma.28 In the inventory of goods of Slava de Sibenico, referred to as domina due to the
25 Cf. Robert Fossier, The Axe and the Oath, Ordinary life in the Middle Ages (Princeton and Oxford: Princeton University Press, 38.
26 The most detailed descriptions of this type of bed is previously given in Božić-Bužančić, Prilog proučavanju interijera kuće u Splitu, 100, and Fani Celio Cega, Svakidašnji život stanovnika grada Trogira od sredine 18. do sredine 19. stoljeća (The daily life of the inhabitants of Trogir in the 18th and 19th centuries (Split: Književni Krug, 2005), 62.
27 Perić, “Kuća u Šibeniku,” 248.
28 DAZd, SŠB, KV, box 16, vol. II / vol. 15.IV.b.3, fol. 170.
43
prominent social and professional status of her husband, Michael protomagister calafatus, the example of a “bed not filled” or senza piuma is mentioned.29 This example is important because it suggests that there were numerous beds lacking feathers or some other fillings. Therefore, it may be assumed that in all cases when filling was not explicitly mentioned, the record actually refers to beds senza piuma. Then, simply, the scribes did not find it worth of recording.
The previously mentioned smaller bed called The previously mentioned smaller bedsize called letizelo (nine pieces or 7.3 % of beds) is rather precisely described in several documents. In that respect, the inventory written for Šibenik’s patrician and naval commander ser Simon Tavelić is particularly interesting. In that document his letizelo is described as filled and made for one person, or letizelo de piuma da una persona.30 Regarding the fact that some of the mobile goods from the mentioned inventory were at ser Simon’s disposal in the Venetian crusade against the Ottomans in 1463, during which ser Simon died in Greece, it may be assumed that he used that bed da una persona during his military operations on sea and land. It is worth noticing that similar beds are recorded in the inventories of goods of two other influential Šibenik patricians, ser Simon Šižgorić31 and ser Paul Nigojević,32 which leads to the conclusion that a letizelo was a luxurious item and therefore can be regarded as a certain “social marker.”
The documents also mention 53 pieces of letiera (43 % of beds), a more humble type of sleeping utensil. Regarding the lower weight and size of this item in comparison to leto it may be stated that it was a type of bed used by poorer persons. When letiera appears in the household inventories of wealthier individuals from Šibenik’s communal society it can be concluded that it was intended for their household servants. To some extent this is proven by the fact that letiere were often placed in unusual locations in households. Thus, for instance, the letiera owned by Gregory Papa, wealthy habitator de Sibenico, was placed in his houslehold’s kitchen.33 Unfortunately, the value of letiera is hard to precisely determine since the price of only one such item is mentioned in the sources. Namely, the lettiera cum vna tolla owned by Peter Milinović de Sibenico had a value of 2 librae, that is, around one quarter of a ducat.34
Some inventories of goods contain interesting remarks concerning various material objects. Such remarks can be found in the cases of letiera. For example, ser Martin Tolimerić owned one letiera, probably used by some of his house-
29 DAZd, SŠB, KV, box 16, vol. II / vol. 15.IV.b.2, fol. 84′.
30 DAZd, SŠB, KV, box 16, vol. II / vol. 15.IV.b. 8, fol. 326.
31 Letizelo de piuma (DAZd, SŠB, KV, box 16, vol. II / vol. 15.IV.b.3, fol. 145).
32 DAZd, SŠB, KV, box 16, vol. II / vol. 15.IV.b. 7, fol. 350.
33 Gregory Papa, habitator Sibenici (DAZd, SŠB, KV, box 16, vol. II / vol. 15.IV.b. 5, fol.
229′).
34 Although it is unknown how many crossbars should this type of bed have, the described
item with only one board was certainly damaged (DAZd, SŠB, KV, box 16, vol. II / vol. 15.IV.b. 8, fol. 378′).
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servants and described as per dormir35 that is for sleeping. Similar pieces of letiera per dormir can be found in inventories of goods of citizens, as well as patricians, like those recorded for Nicholas Lalić and Vuk Ratković.36
When discussing beds, it is interesting to mention cradles made for the youngest inhabitants of the late medieval commune of Šibenik. In Šibenik’s late medieval sources cradles were called chuna or cuna. As pointed out by some historians, in the Middle Ages while sleeping in cradles and some other types of beds, the child’s body was covered, with the exception of the legs, while the cover was usually pinned so the child could not turn over or hurt himself.37 Of course, children of rich citizens, patricians, noblemen or magnates were addi- tionally protected in different ways.
It may be generally stated that almost all children regardless of their gender or social status got attention and affection from their closer social environment.38 In the examined sources cradles are mentioned ten times. It is important to emphasize that these cradles appeared in inventories of goods of individuals belonging to different social layers of the late medieval commune of Šibenik. Thus, cradles are recorded in inventories of goods written for villagers from the district of Šibenik (Matthew Tekumilić de villa Popegl39 and Thomas Duplović de Dazlina40), as well as in inventories of citizens of Šibenik, like magister lapicida John Scherba41 and Radoj Blitva de Sibenico.42 Not sur- prisingly, the most beautiful and most luxurious cradles are mentioned in inventories of goods recorded for wealthy patricians like, for instance, a large cradle imported from Venice (cuna venetiana granda per puti), which was owned by the patrician ser Anthony Lučić.43 It is interesting that in the inventory of the late ser Marco Iohannis even five different cradles are recorded. It may be assumed that they all were used by his own children or perhaps some of them were owned by his parents or grandparents.44 Particularly interesting is one cradle with some additional utensils described in Mark’s inventory. In dita chuna, the scribe recorded one green blanket or Couertor in dita chuna, verde de rassa45 and also two infant sheets.46 However, although the chuna was an item that might have been found in some late medieval Šibenik households, regard- less of the social position of the owners, it may be stated that it was still a rare
35 DAZd, SŠB, KV, box 16, vol. II / vol. 15.IV.b. 5, fol. 221.
36 DAZd, SŠB, KV, box 16, vol. II / vol. 15.IV.b. 3, fol. 185′, 171′.
37 Fossier, The Axe and the Oath, 47.
38 Fossier, The Axe and the Oath, 38.
39 Cuna de puto (DAZd, SŠB, KV, box 16, vol. II / vol. 15.IV.b. 5, fol. 258).
40 Cuna da puti (DAZd, SŠB, KV, box 16, vol. II / vol. 15.IV.b. 5, fol. 298).
41 Chuna (DAZd, SŠB, KV, box 16, vol. II / vol. 15.IV.b. 8, fol. 382′).
42 Chuna de puti (DAZd, SŠB, KV, box 16, vol. II / vol. 15.IV.b. 5, fol. 294).
43 DAZd, SŠB, KV, box 16, vol. II / vol. 15.IV.b. 5, fol. 273′.
44 DAZd, SŠB, KV, box 16, vol. II / vol. 15.IV.b.7, fol. 343′-44′. In the data recorded in his
inventory of goods there is no indication of how many children ser Mark had.
45 DAZd, SŠB, KV, box 16, vol. II / vol. 15.IV.b.7, fol. 344′.
46 2 linzuoli in dita chuna da puti (DAZd, SŠB, KV, box 16, vol. II / vol. 15.IV.b.7, fol. 344′).
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object. Therefore, it may also be assumed that most of the children in the late medieval commune of Šibenik slept in the same bed with their parents.
Pillows
There are two types of pillows mentioned in the inventories of goods of inhabitants of the commune of Šibenik. The most common type of pillow was the classical one recorded under the term cusinello and cusin (see graph 2). In
almost all cases the purpose of pillows was for sleeping in bed. There are only a few cases when pillows served for some other purposes. Magister pelliparius Iohannes uocato Sestoperth de Sibenico, for example, counted one pillow for sitting or vn cussinello da sentar, among his many luxurious material items.47
cauzalle 220 32%
cussinelli 471
68%
Graph 2: Types of pillows recorded in the inventories of goods from late medieval Šibenik
Although the primary purpose of a pillow was for sleeping in a bed, its position at the head of the bed made it a dominant and representative object affecting the visual perception of the entire bedroom. This fact certainly influenced the wish of some inhabitants of Šibenik to possess nicely decorated and coloured pillows. Although for the greatest part of pillows their colours were not mentioned, there are 22 pillows in the sources for which their colour was explicitly recorded. The red colour was dominant (twelve pillows) followed by black (four pillows), blue (three pillows), yellow (two pillows), and finally, only one white pillow. Yet, just as with other material objects, it seems that the scribes of the inventories were inclined not to record certain information about
47 DAZd, SŠB, KV, box 16, vol. II / vol. 15.IV.b., fol. 26. 46
those pillows which were rather common or of small value. On the contrary, it seems that they were much more focused on recording and describing those pillows which were unusual and/or of greater value. The only case when a white pillow was mentioned is in the inventory of the patrician ser Simon Noičić from 1454 who owned three pillows – one black, one orange and one white.48 How- ever, concerning the fact that white was the colour which was most easily pro- duced for most of materials except for silk, it is impossible that ser Simon was the “proud” owner of the only white pillow in the entire commune. The rare mention of the white colour in describing pillows (which must have been white in most cases) can simply be attributed to the absence of interest for more punctual description of usual and common items.
Examining the pillows mentioned in Šibenik’s inventories of goods one may find some interesting data concerning the material from which they were made. For instance, in one case there is a recorded pillow ornamented with gold (cussinelo lauora tuto cum oro), in another one the scribe recorded two gilded pillows owned by the wealthy patrician ser Elias Tolimerić,49 and finally there were two pillows made of silk and decorated with gold owned by ser Daniel Jurić, a commander of the Venetian archery.50 The fact that there are only eigh- teen silk pillows mentioned suggests that these material items were most usually produced from some humbler textile material, especially because all of the eighteen mentioned silk pillows were the personal property of six individuals from the most elite communal layer – wealthy patricians. Inventories of goods also suggest that the commissarii sometimes were not sure whether the entire pillow was filled with silk or just the pillowcase was made of silk. Thus, for instance, the aforementioned ser Elias Tolimerić owned two pillows entirely made from silk (Do cussinelli lauoradi tuti cum seda).51 But, Elias also owned Do cussineli lauoradi cum seda, that is, two pillows with pillow casings made from silk.52 Still, it may be also assumed that in both cases only pillow casings were made from silk, in the first case the entire pillow casing and in the second case only some parts of pillow casing.
The analysed sources also give certain information regarding the stuffing of pillows. Although it is known that late medieval pillows were filled with chicken feathers or wool, the inventories from late medieval Šibenik mention only feathers as stuffing material, with no further detailed explanations. A good example can be found in the inventory of goods of a certain Margareta, member of the Franciscan Third Order. Besides a nicely described bedroom, in her in-
48 DAZd, SŠB, KV, box 16, vol. II / vol. 15.IV.b. 3, fol. 135′.
49 DAZd, SŠB, KV, box 16, vol. II / vol. 15.IV.b., fol. 30-30′.
50 Ser Daniel Jurić, Duke in Albania Veneta, owned, among many other mobile goods, also
chusineli 2 de uelesso lauorado de seda bruna et con oro (DAZd, SŠB, KV, box 16, vol. II
/ vol. 15.IV.b. 2, fol. 70).
51 Do cussinelli lauoradi tuti cum seda (DAZd, SŠB, KV, kut. 16, sv. II / vol. 15. IV. b, fol.
30).
52 Do cussineli lauoradi cum seda (DAZd, SŠB, KV, box 16, vol. II / vol. 15.IV.b. fol. 30′).
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ventory there are mentioned also a letiera, a small bench, a linen, blankets, a quilt, and two small pillows stuffed with feathers recorded as cussinelli do de piuma.53 Pillows stuffed with feathers are also sometimes described as pieni de piuma, as in case of the inventory of the citizen Radeta Bositković de Sibenico.54
Similar to many other material objects, the prices of pillows were rarely recorded simply because such estimations were irrevelant to this type of private document.55 In only a few of the inventories the prices of pillows are mentioned. According to the data from inventories recorded for Michael Kogonje de Iurief- grad56 and Peter Milinović de Sibenico, it can be estimated that the price of one pillow was approximately one golden ducat, depending on its condition and material.57
The second type of pillow found in the examined sources are the cauzalle (220 pieces), which is in historiographical studies translated as subpillow58 or pad.59 It was usually placed on the top of the bed and occasionally covered with a cussin. Situated on the top of the bed, cauzalle followed the width of the bed, varying in length between one and two meters.60 It is important to underline that when the cauzalle were unusually wide or long, the scribes never failed to record it. For instance, in the inventory of the pelliparius John Bogdanis de Sibenico one of his cauzalle was 1.8 meters long and therefore described with the term longo.61 As in the case of cussin, some pieces of cauzalle were entirely filled with feathers (53 pieces), some were not (six pieces), and some were half filled with feathers, such as vno cauzal meço pien mentioned in the inventory of George Bilošević de Sibenico from August 1454.62 Finally, it is important to underline the fact that the comparison between the number of inventories and the number of persons owning both mentioned types of pillows results in the conclusion that pillows were held in almost every household in the late medieval commune of Šibenik.63
53 Margarita pizochara de Sibenico qua nunc stabat in ecclesia Omnium Sanctorum de Sibenico (DAZd, SŠB, KV, box 16, vol. II / vol. 15.IV.b., fol. 1).
54 Do cussinelli pieni de piuma (DAZd, SŠB, KV, box 16, vol. II / vol. 15.IV.b., fol. 18′).
55 Yet, one of the main parts of inventories of goods was the recording of all monetary debts. 56 Cusinello librarum 2, solidos 0 (DAZd, SŠB, KV, box 16, vol. II / vol. 15.IV.b.5, fol. 279′). 57 In Peter’s case it is reported that those items were in fact owned by his wife Biloslava
(DAZd, SŠB, KV, box 16, vol. II / vol. 15.IV.b.8, fol. 378′).
58 Perić, “Kuća u Šibeniku”, 250.
59 Cega, Svakidašnji život grada Trogira, 77.
60 Among the other material goods, Ratco Conçolo de burgo Sibenico, owned also 10 chauacal
de 2 braza pieno de piuma, which was 1.2 m long (DAZd, SŠB, KV, box 16, vol. II / vol.
15.IV.b., fol. 39′).
61 DAZd, SŠB, KV, box 16, vol. II / vol. 15.IV.b. 3, fol. 161.
62 DAZd, SŠB, KV, box 16, vol. II / vol. 15.IV.b..2, fol. 96.
63 It is necessary to emphasize that the objects mentioned in the inventories of goods do not
represent all of the material objects within the household, but only the ones owned by a particular person. This means that if some inventory of goods does not mention some item, that item could be held in the same household, but owned by a spouse, sibling or even a child of legitimate age.
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Pillowcases
Although some details regarding pillowcases were already mentioned, these material objects were often mentioned independently under the term intemela, intemella or intimella. A pillowcase was an item that could be placed somewhere in the household and then moved to another place depending on wishes or needs of its owner. Besides the mentioning of pillowcase together with cussin, there are also examples when pillowcases are mentioned together with cauzalle. Thus, for example, a certain Georgie (Jurko) Stertković de Siben- ico owned 2 intimele da chauzali.64 Pillowcases are also recorded together with mattresses as in the inventory of goods of magister sartor Peter Gojač de Sibenico, who was the owner of one entima de vno matarazo, probably made by Peter himself.65
Executors or scribes of inventories of goods often mentioned fabrics when describing pillowcases. Thus, out of all mentioned intimellae in the examined sources 51 % were made from silk (see graph 3), that is de seda.66
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
67
1
2
40
6
10
2
bambasso
fustagno
tella
panno
seda cum seda lana
Graph 3: Material of pillowcases in late medieval Šibenik
64 DAZd, SŠB, KV, box 16, vol. II / vol. 15.IV.b, fol. 43′.
65 Entima de vno matarazo. DAZd, SŠB, KV, box 16, vol. II / vol. 15.IV.b 3, fol. 120.
66 Among many material objects, the patrician ser Phillip Šižgorić owned tre entemelle lauor-
ade de seda negra et Ia entemella lauor[ada de] seda vermeglia (DAZd, SŠB, KV, box 16, vol. II / vol. 15.IV.b 3, fol. 132).
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The greatest share of silk as material for making pillowcases is also visible in the category cum seda67 presented in the graph. Within this category there are ten pieces of pillowcases made from silk mixed with other materials. Thus, this category contains references regarding both – luxurious pillowcases made from silk threated with gold,68 and more modest pieces made from linen and silk.69
Besides silk, the most frequently mentioned fabric is linen and 40 pillow- cases (31 %) out of all examined pillowcases were made of that material. They were not particularly decorated and therefore the executors or scribes of the inventories only recorded their number and sometimes their purpose. 70
In the analysed sources there are also six pillowcases mentioned that are made of cloth. It is interesting that all of them are recorded in the inventory of goods recorded for Šibenik’s patrician ser Nicholas Divnić as intimelle 6 de panno.71 Ser Nicholas was undoubtedly a rich person owning many land estates and other properties in the communal district and in the city of Šibenik itself, but according to the data from his inventory of goods and in contrast to most of the other patricians, he did not possess luxurious items in his three-bedroom house.72
As presented in the graph, there were few pillowcases made of other fabrics: two woolen, two fustian,73 and one made of cotton.74 It is also worth mentioning that the executors recorded the prices of these pillowcases, so we see that Margaret, uxor ser Pauli Nigojević, owned one pillowcase worth approx-
67 For instance, Entemelle da cussini lauorade cum seda negra tre, owned by the patrician ser Thomas Miršić (DAZd, SŠB, KV, box 16, vol. II / vol. 15.IV.b fol. 45′).
68 The inventory of goods owned by Šibenik’s patrician ser Marco Iohannis, mentions intimela lauora cum oro et seda (DAZd, SŠB, KV, box 16, vol. II / vol. 15.IV.b 7, fol. 341′).
69 Pillowcases described as de tella lauorada cum seda negra alta cum seda vermeglia, appear in the inventory of goods owned by Šibenik’s citizen Simon Jurinić (DAZd, SŠB, KV, box 16, vol. II / vol. 15.IV.b, fol. 34′).
70 Records of special purpose of some items are not frequent, but can be sometimes found. See the inventorys recorded for Dragoslava, wife of Matthew Ratković de Sibenico (DAZd, SŠB, KV, box 16, vol. II / vol. 15.IV.b 3, fol. 166).
71 DAZd, SŠB, KV, box 16, vol. II / vol. 15.IV.b 5, fol. 205.
72 As some other inventoriesof goods belonging to wealthy people, this one was also divided
into a number of chapters. The bedroom items owned by ser Nicholas were recorded in the chapters In la casa in camara da sopra, In una altra camera and In una altra camera (DAZd, SŠB, KV, box 16, vol. II / vol. 15.IV.b 5, fol. 205-05′).
73 Margaret, female member of the Third Order of St. Francis, owned entemella de fustagno, with the remark made by scribe that this was an item on which the deceased Margaret slept on (DAZd, SŠB, KV, box 16, vol. II / vol. 15.IV.b fol. 1). Another pillowcase made de fustagno can be found among the household items owned by a canon from Šibenik, James Žiljavić, described as vna entemolla de fustagno (DAZd, SŠB, KV, box 16, vol. II / vol. 15.IV.b 3, fol. 175).
74 DAZd, SŠB, KV, box 16, vol. II / vol. 15.IV.b 4, fol. 196. 50
imately half a ducat and described as intimella de cauacal grande da leto nouo de bombaxo librarum 3.75
Gold threading as one possible method for the decoration of fabric has already been mentioned. Yet, the implementation of that technique was too ex- pensive for most of the late medieval population of Šibenik, except for those belonging to the elite of rich citizens and patricians. Nevertheless, financial in- feasibility of possessing such expensive material objects did not prevent the rest of the communal population in holding other beautiful pieces of pillowcases.
There are 65 pillowcases for which the colour was recorded. In spite of the fact that white was the dominant colour, primarily because it was the base colour of most fabrics, in the examined sample of sources five more colour variations are recorded. Regardless of the rather small number of colours different from white, it still gives an interesting insight into late medieval bedrooms in Šibenik whose interiors were, from time to time, colouresque due to the richness of different halftones of colours of pillowcases, sheets and blankets (graph 4).
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5 0
38
White
1 Red Orange Blue Green
10
Black
6
55
Graph 4: Colours of pillowcases in the inventories of late medieval Šibenik Bedlinen, blankets and quilts
In inventories of goods recorded for the denizens of the late medieval commune of Šibenik, the usual terms used for bedlinen were linzuol, lenzuol,
75 The scribes of this document were the patricians ser Luke Butrišić and magistro Piero Goicich. Peter was probably a sartor making the mentioned appraisal relevant (DAZd, SŠB, KV, box 16, vol. II / vol. 15.IV.b 4, fol. 196).
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linçuol, and linzoleto. According to the data from the researched source material bedlinen made 10 % of all material objects positioned in bedrooms (from alto- gether 238 pieces). Poissibly due to the fact that bedlinen was a material object regularly covered with quilts and blankets, there is only one reference to their colour.76 Fabrics are also mentioned, but still rather occasionally. Thus, besides the two mentioned linzuoli made from silk and owned by ser Nicholas Divnić, in the entire examined sample there is only one more silk bedlinen recorded, de- scribed as 1 linzuol lauorado cum seda, whose owner was the wealthy patrician ser Mark, son of John.77 In the analysed inventories of goods there are also few warmer variants of bedlinen recorded. There were seven pieces of bedlinen, one made of fustian and one made of warmer type of cotton named bochasinum, which were used during the cold winter period in order to warm the body temperature during sleep.
In contrast to the data about colours and fabrics, the scribes and executors recorded 56 data concerning the condition of bedlinen. There were 28 used, 18 old, seven rough, and three damaged ones. This suggests that linen as household objects were used through a longer period of time and that many of them were patched rather often. One of the main reasons for patching them was the fact that linen was not cheap, neither as a fabric nor as a final product, which confirms its usual price of around half a golden ducat.
There are altogether 18 records regarding the size of bedlinen, which pro- vides us with a certain insight into that issue as well. The length of the longest linen was 5.5 m,78 while the shortest ones measured around 1.4 m.79 Most often the length of the linen was between 2.5 m and 3.5 m. The dimension of three silk linens for cradles (tre linzoleti da chuna lauora de seda) owned by the doctor artium et medicine Antonius de Spilimbergo may be assumed to have been the smallest in both length and dimension.80
The analysed sources give a rather precise insight concerning the great number of bedspreads which were recorded as carpeta da leto (162 pieces) or banchalle da leto (56 pieces). Bedspreads made up 10 % of the total number of material objects used in bedrooms in late medieval Šibenik. They were usually spread on the bed, but not necessarily over its entire surface. The main purposes of these blankets were additional warmth and bed decoration. According to the data from the examined sources there was no difference between bedspreads called carpeta da leto and those called banchalle da leto. Namely, the invent-
76 The only mention of colour in the context of linzuol appears in the inventory of goods belonging to the patrician ser Nicholas Divnić. This documents mentions two such items made of silk and another one made for infants (DAZd, SŠB, KV, kut. 16, sv. II / vol. 15. IV. b. 5, fol. 205′).
77 DAZd, SŠB, KV, box 16, vol. II / vol. 15.IV.b 7, fol. 342.
78 /2/ para da linçuoli cum suo rede tella braza 100 (DAZd, SŠB, KV, box 16, vol. II / vol.
15.IV.b 3, fol. 144).
79 … linzuol de tella longo braza 3.5 (DAZd, SŠB, KV, kut. 16, sv. II / vol. 15. IV. b. 2, fol.
74).
80 DAZd, SŠB, KV, box 16, vol. II / vol. 15.IV.b 7, fol. 323.
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ories of goods suggest that the reason for using these two different terms was the simple fact that various executors and scribes used different notions for one and the same item. This is also a consequence of the simultaneous usage of three main languages spoken in communal daily life (Veneto, Latin and Croatian), which significantly influenced the choice of terms used for the material objects. In that context, it is interesting to recognise that both terms for bedspreads were used together or parallel in only two inventories. In the first one, the Šibenik citizen and butcher (becarius) George Mirković is named as the owner of a carpeta or banchal,81 and in the second one of the doctor artium et medicine Antonius de Spilimbergo a carpeta da leto cum banchali cinque are mentioned.82 These examples as well as many others reflect some uncertainty of the executors and scribes in how to denominate some material objects accurately. It is worth mentioning that in the case of carpeta the executors often added the appendage da leto except in the inventory of goods recorded for the pelliparius Radoslav Golobrata de Sibenico, who was mentioned as the owner of four pieces of anitem decribed as carpete 4 da sopra lecto.83
Concerning the fact that bedspreads were also decorative items, scribes sometimes mentioned their colour. The most frequent colour attached to bed- spreads was blue (seven pieces) followed by red (two pieces), black (one piece), and multi-coloured (piu color; one piece). Furthermore, the executors or scribes often recorded the length of them84 ranging from 1.1 m85 to more than 3 m.86 The most frequent length of blankets mentioned in the inventories is 1.7 m. The longest blanket measuring 3.4 m (1a carpeta dopia braza 20) was owned by Kate, wife of the late George barbitonsoris de Sibenico.87 It is worth mentioning that one of the executors of Kate’s last will was her sister Sfila, uxor condam magistri Grubisse lapicide.88 The case of these two sisters is interesting because they were of local, most probably Croatian, origin and both married to respected and skilled local artisans belonging to the upper layer of citizens in Šibenik. The inventory of Kate’s goods is also a good example illustrating the high level of material culture among the members of Šibenik’s citizens of Croatian origin.
In the inventories of goods one also finds 68 pieces of quilts called coltra (3 %). Basically, coltra were a more luxurious type of quilts and blankets.
81 … carpeta una noua ouer banchal (DAZd, SŠB, KV, box 16, vol. II / vol. 15.IV.b 5, fol. 222).
82 DAZd, SŠB, KV box 16, vol. II / vol. 15.IV.b 7, fol. 324′.
83 DAZd, SŠB, KV, box 16, vol. II / vol. 15.IV.b 3, fol. 172′.
84 The dimensions between bedspreads named carpeta and banchalle correspond, representing
another argument that this was in fact the same object written in two ways.
85 Braza /2/ de carpete uechie (DAZd, SŠB, KV, box 16, vol. II / vol. 15.IV.b 5, fol. 268′). Banchal de braza 2 lauorado a le piume (DAZd, SŠB, KV, box 16, vol. II / vol. 15.IV.b 3,
fol. 159).
86 Carpeta dopia da leto braza V (DAZd, SŠB, KV, box 16, vol. II / vol. 15.IV.b 2, fol. 76).
Banchal da leto [….] braza 5 (DAZd, SŠB, KV, box 16, vol. II / vol. 15.IV.b 3, fol. 165′).
87 DAZd, SŠB, KV, box 16, vol. II / vol. 15.IV.b 2, fol. 78. 88 DAZd, SŠB, KV, box 16, vol. II / vol. 15.IV.b 2, fol. 78.
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Although the examined sources do not give any information concerning the value of these items, the fact that coltra appears in 22 patrician inventories of goods and in six written for citizens from wealthier families, leads to the conclusion that it was a rather exclusive and luxurious material object. For example, the inventory recorded in 1467 for the citizen magister chalafatus Michael Ratčić contains one coltra de rassa rosa frusta.89 Considering the fact that coltra was an item found only in wealthier households, it is also not surprising that coltre were nicely ornamented. The inventories of goods contain many coloured pieces, most of them blue (ten pieces), sometimes white (three pieces), red (five pieces) and black (one piece). Occasionally multicoloured coltre (one piece), coltre in combination of blue and red (two pieces), of blue and white (two pieces), of blue and black (one piece), and of blue and yellow (one piece) are mentioned. There are only a few inventories of goods in which their fabrics are recorded and, therefore, it is hard to make any conclusive statements regarding this issue. In the examined sources there are only five pieces of coltra made of linen, two pieces made of woolen cloth or rassa, one piece of wool and another one of cloth.
Finally, there are a number of covers named couertor or copertor (61 pieces or 3 % out of the total number of items). The executors and scribes did not pay much attention in describing this item. Only in several cases did they give information about the fabric from which copertores were manufactured. There were copertores made from leather (eleven pieces), rassa (nine pieces), cotton (two pieces), and one couertor made of various types of fur. In the inventory of goods written for the late Venetian army officer ser Daniel Jurić a piece is mentioned and described as couertor de pano doro de puti fodra de vari, or a beautifully crafted variation of a blanket for children lined with fur.90
Mattresses
In the inventories from late medieval Šibenik, mattresses (materazo, 25 pieces) and straw mattresses (stramazzo, fourteen pieces) are also mentioned. These two very similar material objects are to be found most often in inventories of wealthier inhabitants of Šibenik: fourteen patrician, eight citizens, and only one person from the district. Among the citizens, those who owned that item always belonged to the wealthiest and most influential citizen families. One good example is the rich citizen Kate, wife of the late George, who possessed one stramazzo tristo.91 Since all the mattresses and straw mattresses were to be found in households of wealthy persons and since it was a rather humble and uncomfortable sleeping item, it can be assumed that they served as sleeping objects of family servants. In the inventories the mattresses were always scantily described. Actually, there is only one recorded data regarding the material from
89 DAZd, SŠB, KV, box 16, vol. II / vol. 15.IV.b 8, fol. 387′. 90 DAZd, SŠB, KV, box 16, vol. II / vol. 15.IV.b 2, fol. 69′. 91 DAZd, SŠB, KV, box 16, vol. II / vol. 15.IV.b 2, fol. 76′.
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which the mattresses were manufactured. In the inventory of goods written for a peasant, the late Stephen Ivković de villa Ogorliza, in the district of Šibenik, a mattress made of wool is mentioned.92 A simple definition of the main purpose of mattresses is to be found in the inventory of goods of magister pelliparius Iohannes uocato Sestoperth de Sibenico, where it is described as vno materazo da dormer, that is, a sleeping mattress.93
Chests
Chests are material objects whose wide usage signifies that they can be placed in every room within a household. Until the general usage of cupboards, various chests were the basic type of furniture for storing material objects. Chests kept in bedrooms were recorded under the terms cassa, chassa, chasa. All aforementioned objects were stored in them. Their position was along the bottom of the bed, often following its full width. For example, the chests which the nobilis civis ser Anthony Banjvarić had in his bedroom are enlisted in full in his inventory of goods as e primo de cosse mobile so troua in caxa, alongside with otto chase in camara, grande et pizole.94 In the case of the nobilis domina Prija Konjević, on two separate places on the same sheet of the inventory of goods, first a cassa granda in camara, and then, a bit below, another cassa in camara is mentioned.95
Conclusion
Records about numerous material objects used in bedrooms of late medieval Šibenik are recorded in the inventories of goods in the period from 1451 until 1467. The researched material objects (in total 2326) represent all items held in late medieval bedrooms that were used for sleeping. These inventories do not contain the lists of every single material object within a bedroom, or consequently living space, yet only those in the property of the individual for whom the inventory was written. Most of the material objects for sleeping were owned by members of all layers of late medieval society in Šibenik, with the difference that wealthier patricians and citizens owned some objects that were more luxuriously manufactured than the average ones. As in any other aspect, the culture of sleeping in the late medieval commune of Šibenik reflects the high level of late medieval urban material culture.
92 DAZd, SŠB, KV, box 16, vol. II / vol. 15.IV.b. 5, fol. 281. 93 DAZd, SŠB, KV, box 16, vol. II / vol. 15.IV.b, fol. 26.
94 DAZd, SŠB, KV, box 16, vol. II / vol. 15.IV.b, fol. 283.
95 DAZd, SŠB, KV, box 16, vol. II / vol. 15.IV.b, fol. 21-21′.
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