„Popular“ Medicine and the „Elites“ in the Late Middle Ages

„Popular“ Medicine and the „Elites“ in the Late Middle Ages*
GEnHARn .JARITZ. KnEMs/BuDAPEST
I
Talkiu􀃃 ahont popnlar mPdicinf‘ arisf’s the samp problems as talking about
popnlar cnltnre or popnlar r<>ligion. And this is certainly nothing new. All
of ns havp a Cf’Itain knowlP hnt W<‚ arP not rPall:v ahlP to df’fine. Talking about „elites“ obviously Ieads
ns to W’r􀃄· similar difficultics.
ThosP probkms shonlrl not mean though that we better were to avoid
talking ahout popular mf’dicine and Plit.es. \Ve think that those terms are
vpry well ahk to lH‘ used as a framework for analysis and also for our paper
– bnt that WP have to be aware of tlwir „fuzzyness“ and that we at least
lw.Y<> to tr:v to dPscribe what we mean when we say what we do.
Tlw distinguislH’d scholar of the early modern period, Peter Burke, got
Wf’ll awarf‘ of thf‘ mentionf’d problems and discussed particularly thf‘ „twotif’r
modd“ of dite a.nd popula.r culture. To a certain degree such a model
seems to hl‘ valnahlf‘. But thf‘ model c·E>rtainly also at the one hand might
Iead towards a „falsf‘ impr<’ssion of homogE>nity of the thinking“ , behaviour
and m<’ntality of the „peopll:'“ as well as of elitl:’s – which certainly is not
tnw. Ou tlw otlwr hand and in connedion with this first „illusion“ we might
g<‚t thl:‘ impr<>ssion of a strict bord<>rline betw<>en the different cultures of
tlw peopl<> and thf‘ cultures of thf‘ E’lit.f’s. But this borderline certainly again
is a fuzzy onf‘ and onr interest should rather be concentrated on interaction
than on division.1 Esp<>rially wit.h regard to elites we should be interested
* R<‚vised vt>rsion of a paper delivered at the conference ‚Medieval Medicine. Healing
Dod􀆻· and !\lind‘ at the Center for MediPval and Renaissance Studies, The Ohio State
Uniwrsit􀀹·. Colnmbns. Ohio, in February 1994.
1 P<‚tP.r Durke. Popular Culture Reconsidered. In: Mensch und Objekt im Mittelalter und in dl’r friihen 􀀧l’nzeit (\’eröffentliclnmgen des Instituts fiir Realienkunde des Mittelalters und der friihen !’if’HZeit 13 = Sb. Ak. Wien. phil. hist. Klasse 568) Vienna 1990. 183 sq. 24 in practices of ··hicn1tnra1it􀈍·“ which might he very well adopted or taken oYer for onr proble-rn of „‚popn1ar meclicine“‚ ancl t.he l’1ites. T1wrf‘ an• certain1y the other possihi1ities to spt’ak of officia1 and nonofficia1 mPdicine which a􀁵ain may rover parts of t.he distinguishing factors of diffPrPnt kw1s. Ancl there might be the possibility to speak of a medicine of aud for thf‘ ditf’s and such of and for the non-elites which may beronw particn1arl􀂘· nseful. if the meclicine of e1ites is to be connected with c-Prtain sylllho1s of status and rodes of argnmPntation which are snpposed to lw rf’SPnwl for thosP e1ites. Ancl ewr.vthing e1se would then be nonditc:>
mPdicinc:>. popnlar nwdicin<‚ .2 There natnrally is the diversion between
IParnPd mPdicinf‘ and non-karned mPdicine. often again being quit.e vague.
Aue! WC‘ mip;ht HS<‚ the approach of popn1ar medicine as medicine from and
for t1H‘ .. 1)(‚1ow·· . hnt not <‚mphasising that it touches o n 1 y the 1ower sorial
􀈎ronps of soc·irty hnt that it a 1 s o t.onrhPs thPm. All those componPnts
will lw relf’Yant for onr question t.o soml‘ extent. A clear distinction and/or
clrfinition Wl‘ arP not ah1e to give.
WP mip;ht clrsrrihr t1H‘ prohlem W<‚ an‘ dPa1ing wit.h as being the qnestimt
to what ext<>ut vN􀂘· different practirrs to hPal body and mind w hich
normall􀃜· wPrP not part of lrarned mec!icinr and/or were neglected or conclrnuwcl
hy its rf’prf’sf’ntativPs hut at thr sanlf‘ time played an important
rolr iu mrdirYal socirty. particularl􀃜· for lower social groups of society – to
,,·hic-h rxtrnt t hPs<> pract ic<’s also can he traced as having been of relevance
for t hosf‘ p;ronps of soci<‚ty which can be rircmnscribed as elitcs of different
kY<‚ls.
I I
A wr􀂘· valuahl<‚ sonrce for starting our consid<‚fations is one complex o f
sonrcl’s not directly connected with t.hc mf’dical professions: the miracle
rPports. ).firaclPs cf’rtainl􀑤· played an important rolP in medieval societ􀈏‘ and
might haw 􀈐ot rPlrvant for anybody. Ever:vhody. regardless of social status,
wealth and fnnction. could come into the sitnation that. she or he needed
God’s and/or somf‘ saints‘ hf’lp wit.h regard to certain healt.h problems of
2 Cf. \<\’ilkm Tlt.:\1. Frijhoff. Cultuur, mentalitcit: lllusies van elites? Nijmegen 1984, 2 1
sqq.: GC’rharrl J aritz. GE’m!’insamkeit nnd WidE’rsprnch: Spätmittelalterliche Volkskultur
ans fkr Sicht von Eliten. In: Volksknltnr rlE’S europäischE’n Spätmittelalters, C:’d. Peter
Dinz<‚lhach!’r anrl Hans-DiNC:’r !\1iick (Böbling!:’r Fornm 1 ) Stnttgart 1987. 16 f.
25
h<‚r or his hod􀁸· and mind. l\liracks could help v.rhere and when nothing
ancl uohodY ds<‚ „·<‚re an:vmore able to lwlp.
On<‚ of th<‚ patterns one gets confronted with when studying lat.e metlieYal
miraclf‘ r<>ports is cert.ainly the one of the physician who had to quit
and conld not hdp an􀅗’more. Only God’s or his saints‘ help remained valid.
Against th<‚ „·ill or bPlp of God or in relation to them, the physidan, his
knowkdg<‚ aml his abilit􀏀· could become uself’ss.
Th<‚ iuahility of ph􀅗·sicians – in relation or contrast to the power and ahilit!· of God and his saints – is something which we are regularly confrontf’d with.:3 lt is an imag!:‘ which one more or less must have become awarP of in latt> medit>val society. There are those mirade reports.4 The
woman from Zlahings (Slavonice) had lost her hand (Fig. l ) . She was healed
hy t lw physician and the intervention of the saint. By asking for the help
of tlw \’irgin :\1ar􀏀· of Mariazt>ll, ont> of the most important medieval Austrian
pilgrimap;<’s. she hecame able t.o move h<‚r fingers again5 Not alone the
ph!’sician of this world could help bnt also and completely only the physician
from anotlwr world: Virgin Mary. yon physician above all physicians.
Saint „‚olfgang !’OU h<‚ry important aspeds concerning this matter is that ev-
<‚ryhody. rPgardkss of her or his social status, wealt.h and function could be
hdpf’d: not only thf‘ simplf‘ folks but also members of the elites, even rulers.
In th<‚ir sickness. !\1argrave Henry of 􀠲vloravia and his wife received help of the Virgin :d‘ ar􀅖· of !Vlariazell by intervention of St. Wenceslas ( Fig. 2). At least. from its gf’neral basis, thf’re is no difference between elit.es and non- 3 Cf .. on thf‘ othf’r hanrl. Michael R. McVaughn, Medicine before the Plague. Practitionc>rs
ancl t.hf’ir Patif’nts in the Crown of Aragon 1285-1345. Cambridge 1993, 138.
4 Cf. Darhara Schnh. Jenseitigkf’it in diesseitigen Formen (Schriftenreihe des Instituts
fiir GPschichtf> cl(‚r Universität Graz 3) Graz 1989, 26 sqq.; Harry Kühnel. ‚Werbung‘,
·wunrlc>r und \Vallfahrt. In: Wallfahrt und Alltag in Mittelalter und früher Neuzeit =
Sb. Ak. Wien. phi!.-hist. Klasse 592) Vienna 1992, 95-113.
5 So-callf’rl ‚Großf>r Maria Zeller Wunderaltar‘. 1518-1522. Graz, Landesmuseum Joanncum.
6 Cf. \Vittmf’r-Dutsrh. Pilgern zu himmlischen Ärzten: historische und psychologische
AspPkt.P früh- uncl hochmittela!t.erlicher Mirakelberichte. In: Wallfahrt und Alltag, 247-
2:)0.
26
elitrs „·ith regard to thf:‘ possibility or chance to be healed by heavenly
intrrwnt ion.
mr,’f l (􀂄 Ihre t1rntahtfl ,,on qbnwmn:
\\J;n-0 tr l):mO ;tbttflltjlnttnt „tm nittm
ntrnl\tlrn tff􀀙tft ‚\lon bnn :�rqt fu b:Ub fub ij
nt:m Oll‘ rt r ttm qtU „ffblts \\UwO r, bu
fm􀂅rr t’UlTll ·:􀑣
Fig. 1: The woman from Zlabings gets healed
with tht> help of the ph􀁎·sician and the Virgin :\·lary.
P<�nt>l painting. Großer i\lariazeller v\“tmdcraltar, 1518-1522.
Graz. Landt>smusf’um Joanneum.
21
Fig. 2: Ht>aling of !-.1argrave Henry of r-.1oravia and his wife
through the intervention of St. v\ienceslas and the \’irgin Mary.
Panel painting. Großer !\’Iariazeller Wunderaltar, 1518-1522.
Graz, Landesmuseum Joanneum.
28
Fig,. 3: Healing through the inten·ention of St. Agnes:
the inahility of the medical practitioner.
Fresco. 1-!14. Kaltern (Southern Tyrol). church St. Catharine.
29
Fig. -!: Parahlf‘ of t he rich man and Lazarus. the beggar: the death of the rich man;
the inability of the phvsician.
Panf’l painting. end 1 5 . cent. St. Paul ( Carinthia). Benedictine monastery.
30
It is not only thosC‘ mirad􀃳 r<>ports which confront us wit.h such a
sitnation lmt. for instanc􀃱. a m1mher of ot hf’r Wf’ll-known religious stories,
lcgmds. t lwir modifications and addit.ions. For example, the legend of St.
AgnC’s hcaling a sick man (Fig. 3). lt. again can show the inabilit.y of t he
pb􀀔·sician hol rich man had rpfused to hE>lp and whE’n it cam􀂹 to his hour of dead,
not onb· the priC’st got nnablE‘ to give help but certainly also the physician
(fig. -!).
ThE‘ image o f t h E‘ Iimits o f thc knowledgE‘ o f physicians i s therefore
one whirh Wf‘ ar<‚ rc>gularl:v confronted with. particularly from a religious
approach. ThosC‘ Iimits of an:v secular methods of help are something which
E’VPryhody mnlcl ht> ronfronted with. In the late medieval argumentation
this CC’rtainly is particularl􀀔· relevant for thosC‘ groups of soci<‚ty who – from t hC’ir C’cononlical ahilit:v – were ahk to ronsnlt a physician. or. t o put i t morf‘ g􀄟nC’ral. t hf‘ learnf’d mE>dicine.
lt is. b􀀔· thr „·a􀀔·· a wr:v rE’markahlc fad that this image of the failing
of ph􀀔·sicians to hc fonnd in rniradE‘ rrports is sornething which seems to
gC’t tYpiral not lwfore th<‚ twdfth cf’ntury, wh<’n medicine started to rnove
awa_v from oul_v ckrical control t.owards a secular dornain, particularly in
t hC‘ tO\\’llS. i
I I I
I3ut . thE‘ ahility of ph_vsicians and thf’ir actnal o r possihle Iimits must not
onl􀀔· lw Sf’C’n in rclation and ronfrontation to the ability of God and his
saints. I3f’cansf‘ tlwrc cPrtainly also were others who could help if physicians
actnally faikd or in the case that some problems occurred. And this is
somPthing „·hich was not only occasionally takf’n into consideration by some
indiYiduals hut rathf’r s􀂺ems to have been a g<’neral possibility. also rnade
ns<> of h.v PlitC’s or Pven thf‘ uppermost top of sociE’ty. \Ve certainly know a
numlwr of !’xampl􀃲s. also from post-nwdieval times, how this was practiced .
.Just think of th<‚ f’xample of the French King Louis XIV.8 To his deathh􀄟d ,
1 St-e Schnh. Jt’nseitigk<‚it. 28 sqq., baserl on PE’ter Assion, Geistliche und weltliche
H<‚ilknnst in I\onknrrenz. Znr Interpretation der Heilslehre in der älteren Medizin- und
!\firak<‚llitt-ratnr. In: Da􀁓’erisches .Jahrbuch für Volkskunde 1976/77 ( 1 978) 7-23.
􀈇 S<‚<‚ Frijhoff. Cnltnnr. 8-10.
31
lH‘ not oul􀁭· onkn•d a lar�?;<‚ nnmlwr of his phvsirians but also – with their
ag;rrc’mf’nt – SO!llf‘ Yillap;f‘ qnark from Provence who possessed some dixir
ap;ainst p;angrf’ur. ancl hP look<‚cl for hrlp h􀁭, using the „rf’mede du fru abbe
Aip;nan·· . original!􀁗· a r<‚mPdv against watc>rpocks, but in this case – based
on thf‘ clf’riral qnality of its proclurf’r – withont cloubt seen as last rnre-all.
Or this otlwr. ,.f’l“􀁭· intf’rf’sting rxample of the Dutch archpriest from
L<‚id<’n. Hnp;h Yan Heuss<’n. rich. Pdnrated. Jansenist. member of diverse
Plitf’s: an f’Xamp!f‘ whirh was so weil anaiysed by \\’illern Frijhoff.9 In 1687
Hup;h Yan Hf:’nssC’n SC’nt his sirk sistPr. who was kePping his household, over
the ChannPI to king .TamPs I I to be tourhed b􀁭‘ him and thereby get cured.
This casf‘ ohYiousi􀁭‘ do<’s not show a rontroversy bPtween the ratio of the
dit<’s ancl thP s·nJ)Prstitio of the pc>opie.
Yan Hl’nssf’n ne<‚clc>d his sistPr· hrip in the house. In the lPtter to the
Enp;lish apostolic Yirar he emphasised that her help was undispensable in
his hons<‚hol!L Ami t hP whok stor.v did not reflect a mistrust against the
ll’arnl’cl ml’clirinP. hnt jnst another. aclditionai altPrnative. She even took a
nnmlwr of tC’stimonies of wPll-known physirians with her to Engiand. stating
t hat t hP􀁭· ronld not help in her conntry. Perhaps there was some English
doctor who rouhl h<‚lp. if the king’s sacral help remained powerless.
And such and similar patt.erns are certainl:v also to be found directly or
indir<‚rtl_v in late meclieval sonrc(‚S. Having fallen ill, the bishop of Passau in ßaYaria sent a kttrr to the ahhot of the Dt>n<‚dirtine monastcry of Göttweig on :’darrh 1. 1-1/’i‘. rxplaining the following sitnation: On Februar􀁭‘ 26 at lnnrhtimr Iw p;ot heav:v tootharhe, whicb hf:’rame lesser in the evening. The samr uight hc> „·as hrfalkn h:v snch a pain of stonrs t.hat he conld not sleep.
Tli<‚ pain hrrame so heavy that hr lost his appetit.e and since t.hat time
„·as not anymorr ahle to urinate. Hr asked the abbot to pray for him. and
to hold a serYice in hononr of the Virgin Mary and all the patrons of bis
hishoprir that they might intervene for t.he mercy of God. Moreover he
askPcl for somE‘ tasty. not. strong and rather sweet wine, which he was not
able to get.. On 􀑌1arrh 4 abbot Lawrence answpred the Ietter, gave notice
of tlw sen’iCI‘ whirh was held and transmitt.ed some special wine. On the
samf‘ day thP hishop replied with an address of thanks. Thrce weeks later,
on 􀑍larrh 2-l. thr abbot sent the hishop aq’Uam ob ei’Us mirabiles effect’Us
pZ.!Lrirn-nm famosam. some herbs and particularly the herb paritaria which
tl Cf. Frijhoff. Cnltnnr 8-10.
32
shonl nohk11H’ll snff<>rin􀁮 from pain of stoncs, had opcn􀃕d the urinary passag􀃓
;md had cansrd rf’li<>v<‚ of otlwr abdominal pains. The next day the bishop offrrrd his thanks. emphasising thRt he was hoping for ht>lp by using the
11l(‚Dtionrd rrnwdi􀑦s. 10
At knst similar casf’s ran h<> assnmed if OIH‘ Iooks doser into the evidrnrr
of monnstirnl arronnt-hooks. Again it is the varit>t.y of different
ohj(‚rts and dr<>ds \\’hich ohviously at the sam􀃕 timt> are supposf’d to help
or at !rast c-uP conn􀃔cted with somc hope. in 1-171, the abbot of the above
mrntioiH’d Lmn•r Anstrian B<>ncdirtin􀃕 abbey of Göttweig obviously f􀃖ll
srwrdY ill. ThP 􀃕ntri􀃕s into the arronnt-hook show expenses for three diffPrPnt
dortors. on􀃔 pharmacist.. onf‘ halneator, one chir·urgus and for the
arqni􀃗ition of nu:nrn Libell-nm de arte morieruli. 1 1
All(] snrh applica tion of wr􀃘- diff<>rent mct hods to provide healt h can
CC’rt ainl􀋙· kad into sphC’r<’s ‚“hirh Wf‘ dearly can pnt into the realm of Superstition.
as was at kast also partl􀈧‘ non􀃕 hy medieval p􀃖rsons h<‚ing affccted of thC’m. Think of the w􀃕dding-night of thr latt>r 􀃔mperor Frt>d<‚rick I I I wit h
El<‚onor of Port ngaL The Portngncs<> ladies of Eleonor incensed tht> bed,
r(‚citPd rh􀆲-m(’s. it was consecrat􀃙d with tlw help of a priest and wit h sacred
\Yat<>r ·- nf est s-nperst.itio m·uliernrn. as th􀃖 rhronist Thomas Ebendorfer put
it to JH’O\’idc• a happy marriage and everlasting Iove. And Fr􀋚derick: he
@;Ot fri􀃚htC’nNI and anxious – abont th􀃡 danger of b<‚ing overcome by some magir — aud onkrr>d Rnotlwr bf’d. 12
ThrrC‘ is this r􀃖gularly orrurring polarity and ambiguity bctween using
aud applyin􀁮 m<>thods not ( r<‚ally) anthoris􀆱d hy the chnrch or bv r􀃛pr􀃙sentatiws
of th<‚ karnt’cl medicinf‘ or h:v other st’rulM elites on th<‚ one hand
hut thPir nsagf‘ and appliration partJ􀃜. b:v tll<‚mst>lves – and on the other
hand condemning them andjor at th<‚ same tim􀃙 bcing frightcned of them.
IV
Particnlarl_v the last mention􀆳d f’xampl􀃡s IC’ad us rather away from the
10 CL GE’rhard .Jarit.z. Klösterliche RE’chnungsbücher als Quelle für die RollE‘ der Medizin
in mouastischen GE’meinschaften des Spiitmittelalters. In: Medizin. Gesellschaft und
Geschieht<‚ () ( 19!l0) 85.
1 1 .Jaritz. KlösterlichE‘ Rf’chnuup;sbücher 83. For surgf?on-barbers in thc Middle Ages, cf.
Snsanna Stolz. Die HandwE’rke df’s Körpers. J\1arburg 1992, 13-1 19.
!:! Cf. .J aritz. Gnn<‚iltsu; ukE’it und V.’iderspruch 26.
33
histor􀁹· of S]H’c-ific patt!’rns of thf‘ inahility of the learned physician. lt t.akes
ns morf‘ to a histnr􀁻‘ of difff’rent availahk possihilitif’s whic:h were or could be
Sf’f’ll as f'(jltivaknt lwcanse t lH’Y all were supposrd to help. This equivalence
of thr learnf’d and th(‚ „popular“ or not-official could particularly be found
ont in studif’s whic-h have !wen concentrating on a much rarlier period than
tlw onr. ont of which Wf‘ took our previous examples.
In the comtl􀁹· lit<‚fatnre of around 1200 th<‚ patterns of curing appear
oft<>n and in difff’rf’nt vari<‚tif’s. Particularl:v the curing of wounds is somet
hin!!; „·hieb occurs regularly in the conrtly romances of this period. And
t h<‚Sf‘ wonnds conld he cnred by female wizards ( Erec of Hartmann von
An<‚). h􀀱· prnfC’ssional physicians ( Enf’as romance of Heinrich von Veldeke ) , h􀀱· „·isf‘ womf’n ( in the Tristau o f Gottfried von Straburg or i n the Parcival of \Yolfrmn von Esdwuhach ) or by a knight. of medical knowledge (Parcival) . Tllf‘ rourtl:v romancrs show a kind o f preference for the non-acadc.>mic
mrdicine. partindarl:v prarticed by women. with an affinity to the magic.
‚\“(‚\·“f’rth<‚kss. thf’r<> is no confiict of clemands and also no competition bet\\
·em thr learnrd and the not-l(‚arned bnt mnch more the acceptance of the
difff’rf’Ilt varif’tif’s and a kincl of eqnality of them. The romances, reftecting
in a \Yi hif’rarrhy. clo not condemn and not. directly prefer. They at least indirectly
Iet the possihilitif’s oprn to choosr. 1 3
Tlw sa!llf‘ S<‚f’ms t o h e grnrrally true for other literary sources though in
some of thf’m. particularl􀀱‘ in hiblr poet.ry and legrnds, the polarity to God
as tlH· tru<‚ lwal<‚r and physirian is ernphasisccl, and in satires ( Schwänken) tlw h111110roHs and satirica.l elc>mrnt. sornet.im(’s particularl􀀱r is supposed to
hit the karrH‘ inter0sts are not touched. thrn evrry method can take place equally ranked
or eqniYalrnt – also ancl sometimes particularly conceming those members
of sorif’t􀀱· who bad an elitarian function.
1 3 Cf. Barhara Haupt .. H<‚ilunp; von Wunden. ln: An den Grenzen höfischer Kultur. Anfecht.
un.e;en der Lebf’nsordnung in der deutschen Erzähldichtung des hohen Mittelalters,
ed. Gf’rt Kaiser. Mnnich 1991, esp. 104-109.
14 Cf. Torstf’n Haferlach, Die Darstellung von Verletzungen und Krankheiten und ihre
ThE’rapiP in mittdalterlicher deutscher Literatur unter gattungsspezifischen Aspekten.
H<‚i<l<‚ll)(‚rp; 1 9 9 1 . f’Sj). 184·- 2 1 6 .
3-1
ThC’H‘ arP c<>rtainl􀀝, a Iot of medieval argumf’nts with regard to use and
ahns<> of mf’dical practices. This question of use and abuse and the differf‘!H
wa_,·s to dral ,,·ith them is – as we think – one of the general central
points on „·hich any anal􀀝·sis with regard to our research problern has to
IH‘ focns<>d on. And particnlarly there the fuzz?ness of borderlines becomes
extrrnwl\· E’Yiden t . Thf‘ well-known preacher and unin:-rsit􀄿r teacher :‘-Jicolaus
of Dinkdshiihel. who lived and worked in \’ienna between 138-5 and his
drath in 1-133. ma􀁟· offer us an example. One of the typical passages out of
his srrmons drals with use and ahnse of Christian practices. The benediction
of ohjects offrrs the possihilit􀀝· to use them in a symbolic and spiritual
‚“a􀀝· and maY that way Iead to positiw conseqnences for man: Cse the sacred
\YatPr as sacred water. hut do not go furt her. lf you take sacred water
home on the day of St . ßlaise it is to be used as a sacred objecL but. not – as
he said – agairrst an:v tumor or other sickness and not against. the worms on
kraut or a􀅀ainst he<>tles in the vine􀀝·ard or agairrst mildew. ln anothPr conncction
,,·ith candlrs he argued in a similar „·a􀀝·. stressing that one should
not hdiew that „·hat some foolish parish-priests „·eree pr(‚aching. sa,·ing or
\\Titing. 1“ Ami hC’H‘ \\’E‘ see this typical amhiYalence of different authorities.
:\’ot onl,- thr wrll-known pr<>acher and uniwrsity teacher was an authority
hut also t Iw parish-priest. though on another lewl. But those different
kYels wprf‘ not as distinguished or separated. as the preacher might have
„·antrd to C’mphasis<>. in PwrydaY lik of people of all ranks „·ho needed help
this controvprs􀀝· might not have been existrut. about which one can regularl.“.
for instance. find f’Yidence in rdigions writiug. particularl.v in Sermons.
They sometimf’s distinguishPd drasticall.v. like in the example of Berthold
YOn Regenshnrg. between the honourable learned doctor of medicine and
the femalt> „·izarci to „·hom he put the question: „Do you want to fake the
nwdicine of Gocl?“ 16
:\’ot only t.hosE> cases – out of many – of the learned preacher condemning
some ahnse and at the same time warning from foolish parish-priests,
l-> Cf. Ernst Englisrh. DPut sche PrPdigten als Vermit tler zwischen Gelehrtenkultur und
\’olksknltur. In: \’olkskultur des europäisd1Pn Spätmittelalters. ed. Peter Dinzelbacher
and Hans-Dieter !llück ( B öblinger Forum 1 ) Stuttgart 1987. 156 sq.
16 Cf. Ernst Wolfgang Keil. Deutsche Sitte und Sittlichkeit im 13. Jahrhundert nach den
damaligen deutschen PrE-digten. Dresden 1931. 159 sqq. and 18i sq.
35
\•.:ho obviously support it, or from wizards, who practice it, clearly show the
problematics of acceptance and refusal. In the course of such an ongoing
discussion one really could suspect that there might have been a feed-back
effect : B:v regularly mentioning abuse and condemning it, a result into the
other direction at least might be thought of. The recipient, the person
seeking help might have got the impression that truth was lying behind
something. which was continuously condemned by some authorities but obviousl
􀂮, supported or practiced by ot.hers. even if those authorities were to
be put on different Ievels.
Think in this connection of the amulets regularly criticised and regularly
nsed, particularly in religious paintings of baby Jesus (Fig. 5). Think
of the hand of Fathme or Saint Anne, also rarely used in religious painting
(Fig. 6). think of the prognostical books particularly used by members of the
elites and at the same time condemned by the church (Johannes Hartlieb,
the ph􀂮·sician of the Bavarian duke Louis Vll), think of the regularly used
bloodletting tables, and some harsh satirical critics on them (Hans Folz
1480).17
Not only the already given examples of sermons but a number of other
evidences might Iead us to the conclusion that learned medicine, „popular
medicine·· and God are sometimes with regard to their ability to help not
onl:v close together but were used together. They represented those different
possibilities. lf one of them did not not help. one tried the other, or one
tried all of them together, at the same time to improve the chances. lf one’s
health is in danger, there is not just one generally valid authority.
The va.gue borderlines – if any – are also particularly proved by manuscripts
containing collections of various recipes. Recipes generally are
something which are quite nearer to each other than they are for our understanding
today. Collections containing cooking recipes, recipes against
sickness being based on authorative medical knowledge and such which we
today would clearly put into the category of superstition, also of prognostical
character. are something which we certainl:v find combined or together
– which \vith regard to cooking recipes at least indirectly already can be
found in the Didascalion of Hugh of St.Victor of the 12th century ( 1 137):
cibum et potum inter attributa medicine annumero . . .. And in an allegory
1 ‚ Cf. Gerhard .Jaritz. Aderlaß und Schröpfen im Chorfrauenstift Klosterneuburg (1445-
1.533). In: Jahrbuch des Stiftes Klosterneuburg NF 9 (197.5) 78.
36
on the sciences. the arts and the crafts at the court of emperor Maximilian
I in a woodcut of Hans ßurgkmair of 1507 one finds the ars coquinaria
as tht> sixth of the artes mechanicae replacing or better representing the
medicina. 18
Fig. 5 : Jesus with a coral amulet.
Panel painting (detail), Meister von Uttenheim, c. 1470. Vienna. Österreichische Galerie.
18 Cf. I\itti Jurina, Vom Quacksalber zum Doctor :\1edicinae. Die Heilkunde in der
deutschen Graphik des 16. Jahrhunderts. Cologne-Vienna 1985. 20 and 32. fig. 25.
37
Fig. 6: The Massacre of the Innocents (detail);
woman bearing a hand of St. Anne-amulet.
Panel painting. :\’feister des Schottenaltars. c . l 470.
\’ienna, Benedictine monastery of the Scots.
38
.-\s au f’Xa111pk of this t􀂍·pt> of �;om-rt>s I jnst would like to m<’ntion a
fiftf’f’llth <„f’lltnrv mannscript of mouastic origin todav kept in the Universit_v Lihnu·􀀹- of Graz ( Anstria ) . A !arge collt>rtion of cooking rt>cipes is followt>d
h􀁒- diwrsr rPc-ipt>s dPaling with diffrrt>nt prohkms of healt.h or of t he body
gPnPml!􀀹·- ThP? an• follow<‚d h_v sonH‘ t.rac:tatt>s c:onc:erning pestilence and
othf’r rrc-ip1•s with r<>gard to tht> tr􀂷>atmmt of animals and of plants.
And in th0 course of rPcipes dealing with thf‘ human hody and health
it is crrtainl􀁒- qnitr nat.nral t.o have for instanc:c the following recipt>s or
I“f’UH’dil’s in an ordrr:
ltf’I!l if a woman wants to have a haby
ltPm nnotlu’r ont> conrPrning this mattf’r
lt0m if a woman should conct>ive
ltPm if a woman is snffcring from hrPast disease
. . . ( a nnmlwr of tht>m)
ltl’m if a woman wants to hnve a smallrr breast
lt<‚lll if 􀀹·on want to knO\\‘ if a woman is still a virigin
ltf’m if 􀁒-on want to kno\\· if sh<‚ ,,·ill giw birth to a bov or to a girl etc.
Th<‚_,. c0rtainl􀈦· follow in this examplr an ordrr with regard t o difft>rf’nt
prohkms of t h0 fl’mnlP bodv – and c:ollect conccrning very differf’nt aspects.
\Iorpm·r-r tlwv n•presnlt verv diffl>rent nwthods of a ratht>r wid0 spectrum
– from t hP stomach of a hart> to massagf‘ t he wo man ’s brf’asts which makcs
th0m smallPr. to Yinegar hPrhs which shonlc\ he put on the woman’s hcad
,,·ithont h<‚r knm,·kdgP. If thf’n sh<‚ talkf’d about a man she would givf‘
hirt h to a so11. if ahout a wo man. she would giw hirth to a daughtcr, and
if ahout hoth. tlH’ll the child would live long. To give a last example: If
thP \\’Oman is ahont to giv0 hirth: Writf‘ a let t<‚r which should he fixed on tht> ,,·oman·s hod_v or aronnd the knt>f‘ or tht> leg containing the following
,,·onls: „Elisalwth gave hirth to John. Annt> t.o \1ary, t.he Virgin !vlary to
Christ ,,·ithont any pain. 0 child. :von ma􀂶· b(‚ hov or girl, in thc name of
.J rsus Christ. onr Lord, . . . come out to sp(‚ the light of life. givrn hy the
hirt h of God . . … . H J
19 Cf. Cni YPrsirätshiblioth<‚k Graz. Hs. 1609. fol. 211Y sqq: GE>rhard Jarirz. Leben
um zu i<‚b<>n. in: Alltag im Spätmit telaltrr. E>d. Harr􀆓- Kühne!. 3rd cd. Graz-ViennaColop;nl‘
198G. 1 5 8 . Cf. a similar manuscript ronrE>ntrating on the medical sidc: Warren
R . Dawson. A L<‚<‚chhook or Collection of i\’lf• dical RE>cip<‚S of t.he FiftE>enth Centnr:v.
London 193-L
39
Such n•cip<’s nr<‚ r0rtain!Y partly well-knmYn and occur ever again in
wry diffrr<’nt sonrr<’s also far into latN pPriods. \Vhat seems to be importtlnt.
thonp;h. is that thf’rf‘ cannot !)(‚ fonncl an:v differentiations of various
lrn•ls or m<>thods of tr<‚tltmf’nt or snAAestions rf’ferring to it in the sources.
Tlw􀁤· tlrf‘ tak<’n as r<‚prPsent.ing similar. without difference concerning the
wa􀋛· to ohtain hdp. ma􀋜‘ it. be anthorised by the learned medicine, condrmnPd
or rq?;ard<‚d as snpf’rstitions hy diVPrse authorities or accepted by
\’f’ry diff<‚rt>nt p<‚opk sf’Pking h<>lp. cmf‘ and health.
VI
A wr􀁤· important asp0ct ancl source concerning our topic is furthermore position<‚<
l on auoth<‚r kwl of argnment.ation and understanding. lt is the mattrr
of an􀁤· uon-lPartwd m0dicine h<‚ing compet itions to the learned medicine,
particnlarly th<‚ out> taught at universities. Examples from the Medical Facnltirs
conc!Prnning or going to conrt against non-learned medicine may at
kast to som<‚ (‚Xt<’nt he Ültf’rprcted following snch kind of controversy.
Particnlarl􀁤· an example from the univcrsity of Vienna from the eighti<‚ s of the fiftf’t>nth ccntnr:v seems to be rf’markable and should be dealt
,,·ith a littlr hit more extensively. lt. is the case of a curing old woman,
who certaiul􀁤· fits from the beginning into th<‚ pattern of arguments against
„·omm working in thf‘ mf’dical trad<’20 , particularly those old womf’n of
donhtfnl knowl<>rlgf‘. which Wf‘ find evf’r and again in different sonrces –
plra nrgl<‚ctaurf‘ of kgitimatf‘ rnles etc. “ . . . and one hears of old women“ , says
for exampl<‚ SC’bastian Brant in his „Narrenschiff“ of 1494, „who know their
art so w0ll. tlH’Y eure all sickness, no difference of whom, of :voung and old,
child. man and woman . . . „2 1 The element of Superstition plays an important
rol<> with r<‚gard to them in the critical argumentations: „Be careful with old womf’n who takf‘ away the sacred water from thl:‘ baptism font to usc it for th0ir sup0rstitions practices“ . This is emphasised in the „Ceremoniale 2° For mt>dieval women medical practitioners. cf. Monica H. Green, Documenting medit>,
·al womt>n ·s mt>rlical pract ice. In: Prartical medicine from Salerno to the Black Death.
<‚d. Lnis Garda-Dallt>SI<‚r et al. Cambridge 1994, 322-352. :! 1 Cf. Sd>a􀁛tian Drant. Das !\Tarrenschiff. Stutt.gart 1978, 194.
40
Basili<’nsis t>piscopatns“ of tlw bishopric of Basel in Switzerland in th􀑈 :vear
1013.22
Ancl snch an old woman. una ·oet·ula. rose major problems for th<> Facnlty
of :\l<‚<liciuf‘ of thf‘ l1niversity of Vienna. lt is a very remarkable examp!
f‘ of th<‚ controv(‚rs:v hf’tween tllf‘ learned mt>dicine and other spheres of
m<‚dical practicf‘.23
Th<> ·netnla maledicta liw’d in a small village about 30 miles west of
\’i<‚Jma. and t lwre she indocta et certe inexperta practicavit. Therefore.
shf‘ harl to appf’ar before the Faculty. was examined, because of lacking
kumdf’dp;<> she was prohihit.erl to continue practicing s·ub pena excomrnu
·rr.icntirmis. ShP v..·ent on. hecame excommuuicated. which was told to the
J)(‚Opl<‚ from th<‚ pulpits of Vienna, 1\]osternenhurg. Tulln and St. Pölten.
\“i<’nna anrl those nwntioned snrronnding towns ohviousl:v show from where
she rC’c<‚iwd h<‚r patients, representing a circ·le of about 30 miles around the
Yillage whf’r<‚ she liwcl. The numher of people consulting her ’non-expert‘
kuowkdge mnst have hf’en remarkahlf‘. She – and that again shows her special
position ·- applird to R ome to be absohred – without success. Therefore,
slw Wf’Jlt hack to the fantlt􀁉‘ asking for ahsolution. They agreed nnder the
follo“·ing conrli tions:
1 ) A chartf’l‘ shonld be writt.en and pai shr had trrasonrd tlw people in bodv and mind. lt. also should contain
the explicit thrf’at of another excommunication and of being heat.eu.
wlwn not ahstaining from hrr businPss.
2 ) Again pai l\lostPm<’nhnrg. Tulln. St .Pölt<’n and ;-. It>lk that. she had made fun of
tlw Facult􀁊· aud had call<‚d the doctors ignorant.s.
3) Sh<‚ hacl to give an oath about abst.aining from any medical work and
from argning against. the Faculty.
-! ) She shonld stand bet.ween half an honr and one hour in the pillory
of thl‘ p;rav<‚􀁭·arcl of Saint St.ephen ’s in Vi<’nna on a feast. day. when a largr mtmhf’r of people would he gathering there so that everybod:v who 22 C’f. .laritz. L􀈥hPn nn1 zn leben. 164. 23 Cf. Acta farnltatis medicae II. ed. Kar! Schrauf. \’ieuna 1899. 133, 136, 137, 141 sqq.: Harr􀁰; 1\iihn(‚l. :\1ittelalterliche Heilkunde in Wien ( Studien zur Geschichte der Cuin>rsitiit \-\’i(‚u \‘) Graz-Colop;nf‘ 196.5. 50 sq.
41
had cn!lsnltPd hf’r shonld rPcognis<> that he or she had clone sornething
erronf’ons h}· Yisiting dictam 11etulam pro medicina . . . .
Shf‘ rf’fns<‚d to acc<‚pt this fonrth point. A rnember of the quite influential
nohle family of the R oggendorfer intervened for her, without success. At
last shf‘ ar;r<‚Pd to do thf‘ same what she was asked to do in Vienna on the
graw}’ard of thf‘ small town of Tnlln. wh<>n‘ she lived nearby. This was
accrptf’d. At the very end slw rdnsed to pay for the charter, saying that
shr did not havf‘ any monf’y.
Thf‘ story Sf’ems to be f’XCf’ptional though a nurober of other cases
haw snrYind showing a similar sitnation of not-learned empirici who were
fonp;ht ap;ainst hy thf‘ facnlty.24 What appears to he particularly interesting
and valnahk for the qnestion I am dealing with, though, is the obvious
!arg<‚ mtmhf’r of patients from quitf‘ far away who consulted her. who were
oln·ious!Y also snch pt’ople which can without doubt be recognised as mernh<‚
rs of thf‘ political and f’conomical elite of the area. Especially the open
snpport which sllf‘ got from a member of onf‘ of the leading noble families
of tlw conntry mnst be f’mphasised.
Thrr0hy. it is again proved that from the patients point of view, a cont
roversy cloes not or at least need not exist. The controversy is therefore
gf’nerally not predf’st.ined. To a !arge extent such controversies obviously
arose. hesi of f’conomic comp<>tition between the learned and the non-learned, „popular
.
. rf’prf’sf’ntativrs of t he medical proff’ssion. And this economic competition
and its r<‚fif’ction in the sources sef’ms to correlate with the degree of
organisation of thf‘ dominant part of the two part.ies, who were affering the
samf‘ or at kast a similar solntion to problems of the body and mind. The
morP organisf‘ phYsicians got. thr morf‘ strictly the domination had to be emphasised, the
dominatf’d to hf‘ marginalised or condemned.
VII
And this Sf’f’ms to be provf’d even morf‘ trne, if we turn once again back to
thf‘ mirack rPports, which we mf’ntioned at the bcginning. Because there
24 Cf. Danielle .Ja<‚quart.. l\·1<‚<1ical pra<‚tice in Paris in t.he first half of the fourt.eenth
<‚entnr􀃚’· In: Pradical medidne from Salerno to t.he Black Death, ed. Luis GarciaI3allf’ster et al. Cambridp;e 1994, 199 sqq. 42 \H‘ do not only find tht> pattf’rn of the helplcss doctors against the powt>r
of God and his saints hut also the inability of specific saints. of specific
pilgrimagt>s. of tht> saint of a spt>cific pilgrimage who could not heal – but
another saint . another pilgrimage. the same saint of or in another pilgrimage
„·r�s s1tccessfnl. 25 God and bis saints are thercfore also not in the same way
omnipotf’nt. hut somf’times more and sornetimes less omnipotent. 1496 a
man cal!f’tl :\Iatthäns Ebt>rhard from a Yillage near \\“ürzburg in Southern
G<‚rmany had alrt>ad􀀡· trird to recei,·e help b􀀡‘ vows to the \“irgin :\-Iar:v·
of Aac!H’n – certainl􀀡‘ one of the most important European pilgrimages of
th<> :\Iicl<llf‘ Ap;f>s with international dientel – and t o the Alsacian Rufach,
hoth „·itho11t an􀀡· sncct>s. Then he turned to the Virgin l\1ar? of Alt.ötting
in I3rtYaria – t.h<‚re he received help. A BaYarian hroadsheet from 1 .5 1 7
shows tlH‘ most important :\Iarianic pilgrimages: Aachen. Einsiedeln in
s\\·it7.<‚rlancl Altötting in BaYaria and Lorf’tto in ltal􀅨· in the form of a
cross. I3nt in thf‘ centf’r of this cross. t hf’r<‚ is the pilgrimage of Ettal. On the one hand mentioned togt>thPr „·ith dearl.v generally more important
pilgrimages. on t hf‘ other band and moreoYer positioned in the centt>r of
thosf‘ – heing ( or at least tr􀀡·ing to Iw) the most important of thf’m ali.2G
Agaiu a higl1f’r c’lf’grf’f‘ of organisation initiated ( rconomic ) compt>tition.
,,·hich even did not st.op in front of God anrl his saints .
.-\ 11 of thern might ht>lp. and ont> trit>s. Some of t.lwm are better. som<>
of thrm arf‘ worst>. som<> of tht>m real!.\· can offt>r the t>xpected help. Aud
this again does not rely on an􀅩· boundaries or borderlines concerning the
social status of tht> ones in need. Elitf’s are t.ouched as weil as mt>mbers of
lo“· social gronps of socirt􀀡· .
.-\ nd this g<’nf’fal situation ancl clemand might \\·eil bc one of the main
rxplanat ions for t bis intcrmingling hetween the official and the non-official,
the karneo and the popular. on the one hand al“·ays being good for controwrsi<>
s. on the other hand and at the same time more than good enough
to help. Should W<‚ not differenciatc betwt>en popular culture/elitt> culture
2·:, Cf. Consranze Hofmann-Rendtel. Wallfahrt und Konkurrenz im Spiegel hochmit.telalterlirher
1\lirakdherichte. In: ‚v\’allfahrt und Alltag in !\littelalter und früher 1\euzeit
(\'<‚rÖffPnTlirhungen des lnstit.nts für RE>alienkunde des l\1ittelalters und der frühen Neuzeit
14 = Sb . .U . \ViE’n. phil.-hist.Kl. 592) Vienna 1992. 11.5-131: Kühne!. ·Werbung·.
\\’nndPr und \\’aBfahrt. 95-113.
:?li Cf. GPrhard Jaritz. Zwischen Augenblick unraiJ􀃐· Oll tlw Oll!:‘ hanrt> art> aspt>cts of cultun.‘ wht>re a very clear distinction
heh,·ef’n the elites and the people can or bad to be made, particularly in
thosf‘ arPas where it was nf’cessar:v· as a status s:v·mbol to show the otherness
of thf‘ top in comparison to lO\ver social groups of society. Did not such a
modrl or d€’mand hf’come problematic. if this ot.herness might have endanp;rrrd
or cost on(“s liff‘. which could have been saved when one bad at least
chrck<>d all tlH‘ aYailabl<‚ possihilitif’s: even thos€‘ which had been negatively
connot<>d ··popnlar·· b􀃐· oneself under nqrmal condition of health not having
lw!:’n a t st akf>?
MED IUM AEVUM
QUOTIDIANUM
31
KREMS 1994
HERAVSGEGEI3E􀆼 YO􀁈 GERHARD JARITZ
GEDRCCKT 􀆽1IT 1:.::-\TERSTÜTZUNG DER KULTURABTEILUNG
DES A:\1TES DER :\IEDERÖSTERREICHISCHE!’J LANDESREGIERUNG
Titelgraphik Stt>phau J. Tramer
H<‚ransgt>bt>r: l\1edium Aevum Quot.idiannm. Gesellschaft zur Erforschung der materiellen
Knltnr des 􀆾1ittelalters. Körnermarkt 13, A-3500 Krems, Österreich. – Für den
Inhalt verantwortlich zeichnen die Autoren, ohne deren ausdrückliche Zustimmung jeglichf’r
Xachdrnck. auch in AusziigPn. nicht p;Pstattet ist. – Druck: I WiPdn<‚r Hanptstraßt> 8·-10. A-1050 Wien.
Inhaltsverzeichnis
Vorwort
CHIUSTL-\:’\ KnÖTZL, Die Heiligen und ihrr Klienten. Zur
VPr\\·rrHinng hagiograpbischer Qudlen in der Alltagsge-
7
schichte c!Ps 􀠷Iitt<‚lalt.ers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
GERHARD .JARITZ, „Popular“ Medicine and t.he „Elites“ in
t hr Lat<‚ :\1iddl<‚ Ages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
.JA:\ STE.TSKAL. Dr Lituania
ßomsu.v GRGI:’\. ThP lnventoriPs of ZagrPb Cathedral
A:-:Kl‘:’\DIGl“:’\GE:-<
5
45
59
71
Vorwort
Das Yorli<‚gf’udr H<‚ft vou Merli·um Ae·11um Q·uotidiamtm setzt zum t.’inen die
Pnhlikation von VorträgPn am International Medie11al Congress in Leeds mit
<l<‚lll ßcitrag von Christ.ian Erötzl fort.. Zun anderen kommt ein Referat
Miwl zum Ab }.fittrlaltrrprogramms an der Central Emopean University in Budapest.
:’\ahrzn 􀠵kichzritig mit Medi·urn Ae·11urn Quotidianum 31 erscheint Son< krhand IV nnserer Reihe, dt>r sich mit dem Alltag von Lehrlingen in SachSf‘!
l vom 13. his znm 18 . .Jahrhundert anseinandersetzt. Sonderband V wird
<‚ine Arlwit von Frau Fl’l1se, einer Schülerin von Hans-\Verner Goetz, Hamhnrg.
hrinhaltf’n nnd sich d<•r Behandlung des Alltags in mittelalterlichen
Stadtchronik<‚u widmen.
VPrhawllungen hinsichtlich Sond<:>rhand VI und VII sind im Gange.
\Yir hoff(‚ll. Ihnf’n zu Beginn des .Jahres 1995 genaueres mitteilen zu können.
Hf’ft 32 „·in! im Fdm1ar 1995 znm ErsdJf’in<:>n gelangen.
\\’ir möcht<‚ll di<‚ Gekgrnheit wahnwhmen, unseren Mitglieder ein froh<‚
s \\'<‚iuachtsff’st sowi<‚ Erfolg und Ruhe für das Jahr 1995 zu wünschen.
Anß<’nkm mö(‚htf’ll wir si<:> nnwrlich h<>rzlich f’inladen, uns Beiträge für unS<‚
r<:> Pnblikationsorganf‘ zu Üh<‚rmitt<>ln. \\’ir werckn uns bemühen, diese
nach grgelwnen :.Iöglichk<‚it<’n rasch zu publizif’ren.
Gf’rhard J arit.z, Herausgeber
7